Reading strategies of good and poor readers in word and phrase presentation

This paper reports two experiments which use a micro-computer driven self-paced reading task to examine the reading strategies of good and poor readers. Unlike previous work using this technique the children were able to regress to earlier parts of the texts by pressing the appropriate computer key. The main focus of the experiments is on the relationship between reading strategies, reading ability and the length of the textual units which are presented to the children. Reading ability is found to influence reading strategies differently according to whether text is presented in single words or in phrases. A similar result is found for the time taken to read the texts. The results are discussed in the light of current theories of text processing. However the main point of the paper is to illustrate the use of a potentially powerful diagnostic tool which will operate on computers currently available in schools.     

A comparison of updating processes in children good or poor in arithmetic word problem-solving

This study examines the updating ability of poor or good problem solvers. Seventy-eight fourth-graders, 43 good and 35 poor arithmetic word problem-solvers, performed the Updating Test used in Palladino et al. [Palladino, P., Cornoldi, C., De Beni, R., and Pazzaglia F. (2002). Working memory and updating processes in reading comprehension. Memory and Cognition, 29, 344–354.]. The participants listened to wordlists, each comprising 12 words referring to objects or animals of different sizes. At the end of each list participants were asked to recall the 3 or 5 words denoting the smallest objects/animals in the list. Results show that poor problem-solvers recalled fewer correct words and made more intrusion errors (recall of non-target words) than good problem-solvers. Results support the hypothesis that the ability to select and update relevant, and suppress irrelevant information, is related to problem-solving, even when the influence of reading comprehension is controlled for. With reference to Baddeley's, and other recent WM models [Miyake, A., and Shah, P. (Eds.), (1999). Models of working memory: Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control. New York: Cambridge University Press.], our results point to the idea that problem-solving relies on the central executive for processing and updating information contained in the problems.     

Structural invariance in the associations of naming speed,phonological awareness,and verbal reasoning in good and poor readers: A test of the double deficit hypothesis

The associations of multiple measures of speeded naming, phonological awareness, and verbal intelligence with word reading were examined in 51 poor readers and 74 good readers in third and fourth grade. Structural equation modeling was used to determine the extent to which these two groups exhibited structurally invariant patterns of associations among the constructs. Results revealed that for poor readers, both speeded naming and phonological awarencess were significantly associated with word reading, but verbal intelligence had no association with it. In contrast, for good readers, phonological awareness and verbal intelligence were significantly associated with word reading, but naming speed was not. Findings are discussed in light of the double deficit hypothesis.     

Combining verbal and visual cueing: Fostering learning pictorial content by coordinating verbal explanations with different types of visual cueing

Instructional Science - Multimedia learning scenarios in which a picture is the main focus often use combinations of verbal and visual cueing. Based on models of picture processing and multimedia...     

Memory for Expository Text: the effects of verbal and pictorial enhancements

Previous research has shown that pictures can be effective in enhancing text memory. For example, Waddill and McDaniel (1992) found that pictures depicting detail information in an expository text effectively enhanced recall of those details and pictures depicting relational information effectively enhanced recall of those relations. However, the research on picture enhancement effects raises the question of whether the mnemonic value of pictures is simply a by‐product of having drawn attention to parts of the text through selective repetition of text content. The present study addressed the question by comparing the relative effectiveness of pictures versus simple verbal captions in promoting text memory. The results replicated the Waddill and McDaniel (1992) pictorial enhancement effect. However, the results showed that repeating the targeted information in a verbal caption was as effective as providing a pictorial illustration, thus suggesting that repetition of text content rather than nonverbal pictorial illustrations produced the effect. The findings generalized across three texts that differed in the amount of spatial content they conveyed.     

Visual processing of verbal and nonverbal stimuli in adolescents with reading disabilities

This study investigated whether a group of children with reading disabilities (RD) were slower at processing visual information in general (compared to a group of children of comparable age and a group of children of comparable reading level), or whether their deficit was specific to the written word. Computerized backward masking and temporal integration tasks were used to assess the speed of visual information processing. Stimulus complexity (simple, complex) and type (verbal, nonverbal) were varied, creating a 2 x 2 matrix of stimulus conditions: simple nonverbal, complex nonverbal, simple verbal, and complex verbal. Adolescents with RD demonstrated difficulties in processing rapidly presented verbal and nonverbal visual stimuli, although the effect was magnified when they were processing verbal stimuli. Thus, the results of this study suggest that some youth with reading disabilities have visual temporal processing deficits that compound difficulties in processing verbal information during reading.     

Training of poor readers' phonological decoding skills: Evidence for syllable-bound processing

A flash card computer program designed to increase decoding speed in reading was evaluated with a sample of 55 eight- to twelve-year-old Dutch poor readers by using a pretest-training-posttest control group design. The reading level of the poor readers was comparable to the reading level of normal readers in grade two. After 8 weeks of practicing (twice a week) for 30 minutes per session, children in the training group showed substantial improvements in decoding speed not only on pseudowords directly practiced during the training, but also in untrained pseudowords and in existing words. The no-training control group did not improve in decoding speed from pre- to posttest. The results, furthermore, indicate that syllable-bound processes play a role in phonological decoding in Dutch, and that the flash card method used in this study stimulates poor readers to decode letter strings into syllabic units, which leads to an increase in decoding speed. The role of the syllable in phonological decoding and the potential of a specific flash card technique as a means to improve decoding skills of poor readers are discussed.     

The role of feedback and differences between good and poor decoders in a repeated word reading paradigm in first grade

The direct, retention, and transfer effects of repeated word and pseudoword reading were studied in a pretest, training, posttest, retention design. First graders (48 good readers, 47 poor readers) read 25 CVC words and 25 CVC pseudowords in ten repeated word reading sessions, preceded and followed by a transfer task with a different set of items. Two weeks after training, trained items were assessed again in a retention test. Participants either received phonics feedback, in which each word was spelled out and repeated; word feedback, in which each word was repeated; or no feedback. During the training, both good and poor readers improved in accuracy and speed. The increase in speed was stronger for poor readers than for good readers. The good readers demonstrated a stronger increase for pseudowords than for words. This increase in speed was most prominent in the first four sessions. Two weeks after training, the levels of accuracy and speed were retained. Furthermore, transfer effects on speed were found for pseudowords in both groups of readers. Good readers performed most accurately during the training when they received no feedback while poor readers performed most accurately during the training with the help of phonics feedback. However, feedback did not differentiate for reading speed or for effects after the training. The effects of repeated word reading were found to be stronger for poor readers than for good readers. Moreover, these effects were found to be stronger for pseudowords than for words. This indicates that repeated word reading can be seen as an important trigger for the improvement of decoding skills.     

An investigation of sex differences on incidental memory for verbal and pictorial material

Previous research has sometimes claimed a female advantage on tasks of incidental memory. However, it is uncertain whether the sex difference was due to the incidental, or to the heavily verbal, nature of the tasks used, since women are known to have better verbal memory than men. The current study asked whether a female superiority would be found under less verbally-loaded conditions. No sex difference was found on two different pictorial tasks, both of which measured incidental memory for the content of complex scenes. In contrast, a female advantage was observed across both incidental and intentional conditions when easily labeled stimuli were used. This advantage was eliminated on the incidental condition when the effects of intentional verbal memory were controlled for. These findings strongly suggest that previous reports of a female advantage on incidental memory may have been due to the choice of verbalizable stimuli.     

Investigating orthographic and semantic aspects of word learning in poor comprehenders

This study compared orthographic and semantic aspects of word learning in children who differed in reading comprehension skill. Poor comprehenders and controls matched for age (9–10 years), nonverbal ability and decoding skill were trained to pronounce 20 visually presented nonwords, 10 in a consistent way and 10 in an inconsistent way. They then had an opportunity to infer the meanings of the new words from story context. Orthographic learning was measured in three ways: the number of trials taken to learn to pronounce nonwords correctly, orthographic choice and spelling. Across all measures, consistent items were easier than inconsistent items and poor comprehenders did not differ from control children. Semantic learning was assessed on three occasions, using a nonword–picture matching task. While poor comprehenders showed equivalent semantic learning to controls immediately after exposure to nonword meaning, this knowledge was not well retained over time. Results are discussed in terms of the language and reading skills of poor comprehenders and in relation to current models of reading development.     

The relation of beginning readers' reported word identification strategies to reading achievement,reading-related skills,and academic self-perceptions

Beginning readers' reported word identificationstrategies for identifying unfamiliar words intext were examined in relation to readingachievement, reading-related skills, andacademic self-perceptions. Children who wereparticipating in a three-year longitudinalstudy of reading acquisition in a wholelanguage instructional context were placed intwo groups according to their reported wordidentification strategies obtained towards theend of their first year of schooling. Resultsindicated that children who reported usingword-based strategies showed superior readingand reading-related performance, and reportedmore positive self-efficacy beliefs in readingand more positive academic self-concepts thanchildren who reported using text-basedstrategies. The results are discussed in termsof predictions stemming from the differenttheoretical assumptions about readingacquisition that underlie the code-emphasis andwhole language approaches to beginning readinginstruction.     

On the chemical equilibrium concept: Constrained word associations and conception

The use of the method of constrained word associations to gain knowledge on the conception of the chemical equilibrium concept is reported. The analysis provides information on:

• (a) A general indication of change in the cognitive structure of students associated with chemical comprehension.
• (b) The comparison of clusters of concepts at pre- and postinstruction indicating the associated concepts.
• (c) A graphical representation of the links among concepts which resulted from instruction.

The results obtained by this technique were similar to those obtained by the method of free sorting of a set of concepts. As the latter was found to correlate with problem-solving ability, it is argued that the method of constrained word associations is a reliable tool for mapping certain aspects of cognitive structure concerned with understanding.     

Processing of visual and name codes in good and poor readers

Good and poor readers of three different ages (7, 9, and 11 years) were required to respond to stimuli which could be matched by physical similarity (e.g., A-A) or by name (e.g., A-a). It was argued that these two matches allow for the differentiation of two primary levels of processing required of a visual input. Both age and reading competence proved to be significant variables in relationship to the time required for the physical and name matches. The lack of a significant age or reading competence interaction with the type of match (physical or name) made the deficiency present in the name match difficult to interpret. However, data were discussed which indicate that poor readers are less efficient in anticipating the form required in the name match. This inability to reduce required visual processing through anticipation may reflect a general processing deficiency of the poor reader.     

Developmental associations between verbal and visual short-term memory and the acquisition of decoding skill

This study longitudinally investigated the relationships between verbaland visual short-term memory (STM) and the acquisition of decoding from thepre-reading through the early acquisition stages in 63 Hebrew-speakingchildren Test waves occurred in kindergarten, first grade and second grade.IQ, visual and verbal STM and decoding ability were assessed. The dataindicated that while both verbal and visual STM in kindergarten were significantlycorrelated to later decoding skill, pre-reading visual STM was a stronger predictor.The results further showed that pre-reading performance on the WISC-R BlockDesign test predicted later decoding ability, while performance on theWISC-R Vocabulary test did not. Lastly decoding skill in grade 1 was foundto predict only visual in grade 2. These results indicate that visualparameters may make a crucial contribution to the acquisition of decodingskills. The size of pre-reading visual STM capacity appears to play a rolein this process. The relationship between visual STM and decoding may bebidirectional, as learning to decode appears to develop visual STM. It issuggested that either language-related or task-related factors may accountfor these counter-to-mainstream results.