Cognitive load theory and educational technology

Educational technology research and development - Cognitive load theory provides instructional recommendations based on our knowledge of human cognition. Evolutionary psychology is used to assume...     

The instructional gestalt: A conceptual framework and design for educational research

Summary The argument is advanced in this paper that the pattern of educational investigation wherein comparisons are made between so-called “ experimental” and “ conventional” instructional procedures tends to be defective on three counts: the criteria are often inappropriate or contaminated; the assumptions of homogeneity within and independence between “ experimental” and “ control” conditions are met only when these conditions are very grossly conceived; and the results reflect masking and cancellation effects, thereby revealing relatively little about what transpires in an instructional setting. The Instructional Gestalt is proposed as a methodological framework for educational research focusing upon the interactive nature of learner, instructor, and environmental and course variables constituting the instructional setting. Data generated by explorations within this framework can lead to the formulation of hypotheses which, if subsequently supported empirically, can become principles for inclusion in a theory of classroom learning. The nature of investigations proceeding from the Instructional Gestalt framework was clarified by presentation and discussion of an illustrative study. Since this illustration was only a representation in miniature of the larger investigation, the generalizations about teaching-learning suggested by it are of limited scope and subject to change. Nevertheless, these generalizations do indicate the kinds of hypotheses resulting from studies within the Instructional Gestalt framework. This paper summarizes the rationale underlying research on the Instructional Gestalt proceeding under a grant from the Office of Education, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Portions of this rationale have been presented at the annual meetings of the American Psychological Association in 1961 and 1962.     

Implications of educational theory for the design of instructional multimedia

Interactive multimedia provides a useful vehicle to reconsider the place of educational theories in the design of interactive learning environments. This paper serves to address a number of such theories, especially those centred on student learning, and in particular, attempts to draw out the implications they present for designing effective instructional multimedia. It is argued that we need to develop coherency rather than divergency, in our theoretical perspectives so that we might optimise the development of new technologies in teaching and learning. This rationale is then used to advance one such perspective, based on the role of dynamic modelling tools.     

Cognitive development and instructional theory

The foundations of the cognitive-developmental curriculum movement are briefly examined in this paper. The key features of this movement are the recommendations it makes in three areas: curriculum sequencing, curriculum content, and teaching strategies. Each of these areas is critically examined. It is concluded that the grounds for all proposals are purely theoretical. When the data are considered, they either contradict specific proposals or provide no direct evidence.     

Cognitive styles: Some information and implications for instructional design

A fresh approach to instructional design, one that emphasizes the importance of cognitive style as a learner characteristic, is presented here. The authors report that 11 dimensions of the characteristic have been found, suggesting that individuals differ in the way they process information. Noting that cognitive styles are stable, resistant to change by training and bear little relation to general ability, the authors advocate assisting the learner whose information-processing pattern is not compatible with the task to be learned by plannedsupplantation involving overt alteration of the task requirement with which the learner is having difficulty. They propose a three-step instructional design plan with which to move“beyond individual instruction to individualized instruction” in which“differences in learners need not result in differences in learning.”     

Implications of cognitive theory for instructional design: Revisited

The field of cognitive science is contributing significantly to the research and theory on learning, and to the development of intelligent tutoring systems. The instructional design literature indicates an interest in cognitive theory as well as attempts to integrate it into our theory and research base. However, cognitive psychologists do not necessarily find this synthesis satisfactory. The purpose of this article is to point out the conflicts, so that instructional designers can be aware of the nature of our coexistence. This paper was written while the author was with Human Resources Research Organization, Alexandria, VA.     

Cognitive monitoring: From learning theory to instructional applications

Learners may choose a number of techniques to monitor their cognitive operations and thereby enhance retention of information. Monitoring strategies for information processing, whether student-initiated or teacher-initiated, affect memorability. Future educational processes will make use of interactive media (microcomputers, videodiscs, etc.), as well as printed texts, to support the longterm goal of information retention. This is the fourth ECTJ/ERIC-IR Young Scholar Paper, an annual award initiated to stimulate writing by young professionals in the field of instructional technology. Preparation of the paper was supported by the ERIC Clearinghouse on Information Resources at Syracuse, N.Y.     

A design framework for educational hypermedia systems: theory, research, and learning emerging scientific conceptual perspectives

This paper focuses on theory and research issues associated with the use of hypermedia technologies in education. It is proposed that viewing hypermedia technologies as an enabling infrastructure for tools to support learning—in particular learning in problem-based pedagogical environments involving cases—has particular promise. After considering research issues with problem-based learning related to knowledge transfer and conceptual change, a design framework is discussed for a hypermedia system with scaffolding features intended to support and enhance problem-based learning with cases. Preliminary results are reported of research involving a new version of this hypermedia design approach with special ontological scaffolding to explore conceptual change and far knowledge transfer issues related to learning advanced scientific knowledge involving complex systems as well as the use of the system in a graduate seminar class. Overall, it is hoped that this program of research will stimulate further work on learning and cognitive sciences theoretical and research issues, on the characteristics of design features for robust and educationally powerful hypermedia systems, on ways that hypermedia systems might be used to support innovative pedagogical approaches being used in the schools, and on how particular designs for learning technologies might foster learning of conceptually difficult knowledge and skills that are increasingly necessary in the 21st century.

Cognitive styles and instructional design in university learning

Changes in conceptualization and measurement of the verbalizer–visualizer dimension led us to re-examine the hypothesis that students learn best when instructional material matches their cognitive style. First-year psychology university students (n = 41) studied information on three personality theories presented in text only, text+picture, or text+schematic diagram format, demonstrated recall and comprehension of each theory, and completed an adapted cognitive styles questionnaire. Spatial and object visual scale scores were not correlated, but the latter showed a significant though relatively weak negative correlation with verbal scale scores. Recall could be predicted from students' verbal and object visual scores when presentation format matched these cognitive styles. All three styles significantly predicted students' comprehension, but only when they matched the presentation format. The results support the distinction between spatial and object visual styles, and provide evidence that learning outcomes improve when instructional material is matched to students' cognitive styles.     

Implications of instructional psychology for the design of educational television

This article examines the implications of a cognitive model of learning for the design of educational broadcast television. Specifically examined are research studies with instructional implications for such functions as pacing, cueing, modeling, and transformation of the television presentation. Robert B. Kozma is Associate Professor at School of Education, Associate Research Scientist at the Center for Research on Learning and Teaching, and Project Director, National Center for Research to Improve Post Secondary Teaching and Learning, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109. An earlier version of this paper was presented at the American Educational Research Association Annual Conference, New Orleans, LA, 1984. Appreciation is expressed to Barbara Beath, Edward Saunders, anonymous reviewers, and students in the author’s seminar on educational television for their helpful comments.     

Cognitive load theory and music instruction

In two experiments, the principles of cognitive load theory were applied to the design of alternatives to conventional music instruction hypothesised to facilitate learning. Experiment 1 demonstrated that spatial integration of visual text and musical notation, and dual‐modal delivery of auditory text and musical notation, were superior to the spatially separated placement of the same visual materials, demonstrating the split‐attention and modality effects respectively. In Experiment 2 there were four conditions differentiated by the presence or absence of musical notation and the simultaneous or successive presentation of auditory music, written explanations, and musical notation. Results indicated that the presence of music notation had no effects, but that the simultaneous presentation of either two or three information sources was superior to successive presentation. These results provide further empirical support for the need to consider cognitive load theory when designing instruction in any domain.     

Cognitive load theory,the transient information effect and e-learning

When using modern educational technology, some forms of instruction are inherently transient in that previous information usually disappears to be replaced by current information. Instructional animations and spoken text provide examples. The effects of transience due to the use of animation-based instructions (Experiment 1) and spoken information under audio-visual conditions (Experiment 2) were explored in a cognitive load theory framework. It was hypothesized that for transient information presented in short sections, animations would be superior to static graphics, due to our innate ability to learn by observing. For transient information in long sections, animations should lose their superiority over static graphics, due to working memory overload associated with large amounts of transient information. Similarly, the modality effect under which audio-visual information is superior to visual only information should be obtainable using short segments but disappear or reverse using longer segments due to the working memory consequences of long, transient, auditory information. Results supported the hypotheses. The use of educational technology that results in the transformation of permanent into transitory information needs to be carefully assessed.     

Expansive framing as pragmatic theory for online and hybrid instructional design

Educational technology research and development - This article explores the complex question of how instruction should be framed (i.e., contextualized). Reports from the US National Research...     

Metacognition,elaboration, and knowledge acquisition: Implications for instructional design

The robustness of the effect of precise elaborations on memory and the relationship of these effects to metacognitions about learning was investigated in two studies. Twenty-six naive experimenters administered prepared tasks to 130 subjects. Participants rated the comprehensibility of each sentence as it was read. An unexpected cued-recall test with a confidence rating for each answer given was administered, followed by rating the ease of learning the types of items used in three treatments: precisely elaborated, imprecisely elaborated, and unelaborated base sentences. Both studies resulted in very similar findings: Memory for precise elaborations was 50% greater than for either imprecisely elaborated or unelaborated statements. Comprehension ratings of the three sets of statements were not significantly different. Confidence ratings of correctly answered items were significantly higher than of incorrectly answered items.     

Understanding instructional design effects by differentiated measurement of intrinsic,extraneous, and germane cognitive load

Instructional Science - Instructional design deals with the optimization of learning processes. To achieve this, three aspects need to be considered: (1) the learning task itself, (2) the design of...     

学习邓小平论教育投入的体会与思考

学习邓小平关于教育投入的论述,深刻体会到增加教育投入是教育改革和发展的有效因素,加强和改进教育资源和教育经费管理,提高教育投资的效益是教育改革发展的关键所在.针对目前教育经费投入和管理状况,就在教育改革发展中如何解决好教育投入问题作肤浅探讨.