Foreign involvement in China's colleges and universities: A historical perspective

For over a century foreign educators have entered China as teachers and administrators. While political turmoil and change has dictated the numbers and the nationalities of those participating, there has been no period since the 1860s when foreign educators were absent from Chinese institutions of higher learning. The purpose of this study is to look at the role played by these foreigners and to judge how they perceived their responsibilities in China and how the Chinese viewed their presence.The introduction of this study outlines the differences between Chinese and foreigners concerning educational mission and pedagogical issues. Because of divergent cultural backgrounds, the differences prove striking. The second section of the study takes a look at the role of foreigners in China's higher education system from the days of the Qing dynasty up to the present.This study shows that, despite a new wave of openness in China today, foreign and Chinese educators still face cross-cultural problems that foster misunderstanding and distrust. While the future may hold promise for more understanding, the immediate past and present give no hints of such changes arriving soon.     

Re-examining public opinion preferences for migrant categorizations: “Refugees” are evaluated more negatively than “migrants” and “foreigners” related to participants’ direct,extended, and mass-mediated intergroup contact experiences

Although migrant categorizations (e.g. “migrants”, “refugees”) are often conflated in political and academic discourse, they may be ascribed to different people and inspire different preferences in public opinion. Previous research in Western Europe has identified more positive attitudes toward “refugees” than toward “migrants” due to the legitimate need for international protection of “real refugees” compared to the perceived illegitimate claims by “economic migrants”. However, little evidence suggests that the same preference also exists in Eastern European countries that have historically received smaller numbers of refugees and had fewer frequent experiences with migrants and foreigners compared to West European countries. Moreover, the term “refugee” was intensively recategorized as “bogus” and de-legitimized in East European political discourse. To provide new evidence, we conducted a pre-registered comparative survey-based study with a sample of young Slovak adults (N = 873) to compare evaluations of three commonly used migrant categorizations in Slovakia -- “refugees”, “migrants”, and “foreigners” -- on multiple attitudinal and behavioural measures. In addition, we also tested the intergroup contact hypothesis about the relationship between participants’ evaluations and their experiences of direct, extended, and mass-mediated contact with these target groups. We found that “refugees” invoked less favourable feelings, attitudes, trust, and greater social distance compared to “migrants” and “foreigners”. These evaluations related to the valence (and less to the quantity) of participants’ experience of intergroup contact. These results challenge previous findings about public opinion preferences for “refugees” over “migrants”, support the intergroup contact hypothesis, and make a case for a more contextualized research.     

International students involvement with preparations: Pre-departure coping strategies implemented by Mexican postgraduate students in the UK

Based on findings from a qualitative case study focused on Mexican postgraduate international students at a prestigious university in the south of England, this article explores the coping strategies implemented by the participants prior to departing to their study abroad experience. Findings revealed varying degrees of involvement with pre-arrival preparations where some participants employed a series of creative tactics to ease their adaptation upon arrival, and some others who did not envision any strategies to prepare. However, as afterthoughts, the latter group of students realised such omission had hindered their transition to the new culture. This led to the conceptualisation of the studying abroad experience as a dynamic process enhancing the perspective of the international student as an active agent of their process of adaptation Ward et al., 2001).     

An investigation of ELT students’ intercultural communicative competence in relation to linguistic proficiency, overseas experience and formal instruction

This study aims at exploring how linguistic proficiency, target culture experience, and formal education are related to the learning of intercultural communicative competence (ICC). It presents the theoretical underpinnings of ICC in the light of recent literature. Then, it continues with the methodology section that includes a quantitative research study in which 35 students at the Department of English Language Teaching (ELT) at European University of Lefke (EUL) participated. The participants of the study had different linguistic proficiencies ranging from waystage or elementary level (A2) to vantage or upper intermediate level (B2). The paper concludes by stating the findings of the research and also by making some recommendations for language teachers to better develop the learners’ ICC in teaching English as a second language (TESL)/teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL) contexts.     

An analysis of friendship networks, social connectedness, homesickness, and satisfaction levels of international students

International students continue to grow in number worldwide, prompting researchers to look for ways to make the study abroad experience more fruitful. One avenue of research has focused on friendship formation, the significant role it plays in the study abroad experience, and the unique friendship combinations made possible by the study abroad experience. International students form friendships with individuals from their own country, from other countries, and from the host country. Research has found that international students often have more friends from their home country; however, research has also demonstrated a relationship between having more host country friends and satisfaction, contentment, decreased homesickness, and social connectedness. The current study looks to further explore these relationships through a social network lens by examining friendship network ratios, strength, and variability of the three friendship groups. A friendship network grid was developed to assess where international students’ friends are from and how strong those friendships are. Eighty four international students completed a survey examining the relationship between friendship networks, social connectedness, homesickness, contentment, and satisfaction. Contrary to prior research, international students did not report having a higher ratio of individuals from their home country in their friendship networks. However, international students with a higher ratio of individuals from the host country in their network claimed to be more satisfied, content, and less homesick. Furthermore, participants who reported more friendship variability with host country individuals described themselves as more satisfied, content, and more socially connected. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.     

Is Transparency an Illusion? An Idiodynamic Assessment of Teacher and Peers’ Reading of Nonverbal Communication Cues of Foreign Language Enjoyment

The purpose of the present study was to assess to what extent moments of experiencing enjoyment in communicating in English as a foreign language is transparent to the teacher and the peers within the ecology of the classroom using an idiodynamic approach. To do this, we explored four university students’ self, teacher and peers reading of nonverbal language enjoyment cues in terms of their face, gesture, gaze, vocalics and posture in a course of general English. The participants prepared for a short presentation on a favourable subject and were video recorded to self-rate themselves immediately after the presentation using Anion Variable Tester V2 software. Two peers, one among the participants’ inner circle friends and the other an outer-circle classmate, and the teacher rated the videos of the presentations. The ratings were compared to find points of convergence indicating the extent of transparency of enjoyment in communication. The findings of the study indicate mixed and dynamic outcomes which, confirming the unstable and complex nature of enjoyment, show that transparency of enjoyment in foreign language communication seems to be an illusion.     

Getting Out of their Comfort Zone: Examining Teacher Candidates' Reactions to Service-Learning Abroad

This study presents data gathered from a service-learning trip to Costa Rica designed for teacher candidates. Data include participant responses to writing prompts, field notes, and follow-up questionnaires. Results show that participants' experience with the language barrier raised their empathy toward English learners. However, participants expressed dissonance regarding student behavioral norms.     

A Comparative Perspective of Intercultural Sensitivity Between College Students and Multinational Employees in China

Using the Intercultural Sensitivity Scale formulated by G. M. Chen and Starosta, the intercultural sensitivity of English major students, non-English major students, and multinational employees in China were investigated. In this study, intercultural sensitivity was defined as consisting of interaction engagement, interaction confidence, respect for cultural differences, interaction enjoyment, and interaction attentiveness. The focus of this research was to explore how intercultural sensitivity was structured among subjects of different English learning and intercultural communication experience. A series of results generated by multiple regressions showed different weightings of the 5 elements of intercultural sensitivity of the 3 subsamples. For example, respect for cultural differences for English major students was affected by interaction engagement and enjoyment, whereas for multinational employees it was only affected by interaction enjoyment. The study also found that English major students felt interaction enjoyment more easily than non-English major students and multinational employees.     

Express acceptance or feel anxiety? The effects of trait-related information about foreign residents on endorsement of multiculturalism

Apart from direct contact, people also familiarize themselves with other groups through indirect information. For example, as previous studies have revealed, indirect information on personality traits of outgroup members have influences on intergroup attitudes. Extending existing work, the current study specifically examined the effects of such indirect information on people’s endorsement of multiculturalism, a set of attitudes regarding the attainment of harmonious coexistence among diverse cultural groups. Based on the Stereotype Content Model, two experiments were conducted to investigate how media coverage and social consensus information about moral, social and competence-related traits of foreign residents in China would affect local people’s endorsement of multiculturalism. In experiment 1, when participants learned from the news that foreigners in China possessed high competence, they expressed more appreciation towards the cultural diversity that foreigners brought to the local society, but less support for foreign residents maintaining their own cultural traditions. In experiment 2, participants who learned that other local people perceived foreign residents as having high sociability, morality or competence showed more appreciation towards cultural diversity and more support for maintaining such diversity. Furthermore, in both experiments, perceived anxiety played a mediating role in how indirect trait-related information affected local people’s support for maintaining cultural diversity. Lastly, possible explanations for some unexpected findings and implications for future research are discussed.     

The effects of psychoeducational intervention on the adjustment,coping self-efficacy and psychological distress levels of international students in Turkey

The global increase in international students’ population necessitates identifying their needs and engaging in practices that may support their adjustment. Along with excitement, positive attitudes and high expectations about higher education and life abroad, international students might also experience dread as they prepare to start a new life. Challenges in adjustment during the transition and developmental issues might contribute to such students’ susceptibility of intense emotional experiences, anxiety, depression and other mental health issues. Nevertheless, limited research has been conducted on interventions to facilitate transition and adjustment. Indeed, there is a dearth of psychological interventions that enhance the adjustment of international students in Turkey. This study involves a program and examines how effective this program is in enhancing the adjustment levels of international students. With a 2 × 3 controlled quasi-experimental group design, the participants in the experiment group underwent eight weekly sessions of a cognitive-behavioral-oriented psychoeducational program. The posttest results indicated significant differences in coping self-efficacy favoring the experiment group. However, no significant differences were noticed between the two groups in terms of psychological adaptation and distress. Follow-up results revealed significant changes in all the three measures favoring the experiment group. The findings indicated a positive long-term effect of the psychoeducational program in enhancing the international students’ adjustment levels. Consequently, implications for college counseling service providers in terms of designing psychoeducational programs were discussed.     

Perceptions of national identity and attitudes toward immigrants and immigration in Canada and Germany

In the current research, we examined whether promoting an inclusive national ingroup that includes both immigrants and nonimmigrants would improve attitudes toward immigrants and immigration among members of receiving societies. We also determined whether one's nation of citizenship and individual differences in social dominance orientation would moderate the effects. Participants were 126 Canadian students and 282 German students, who completed a measure of social dominance orientation and were then asked to respond to a series of questions designed to heighten the salience of national identity (national identity), promote a national ingroup that includes immigrants (common national ingroup), or irrelevant questions (control). The dependent measures included attitudes toward immigrants and immigration, and subtle prejudice toward immigrants. Results revealed that the manipulation of a common national ingroup successfully promoted more positive attitudes toward immigrants and immigration among higher social dominance oriented Canadian participants, but tended to have detrimental effects on the attitudes of higher social dominance oriented German participants. Results are discussed in terms of the importance of considering the context in which groups are situated, as well as implications for developing strategies to promote harmony between immigrants and members of receiving societies.     

The relationship between bilingual proficiency and self-esteem

Proposing that bilingual proficiency should produce a more favorable attitude toward bilingualism and should enhance one's self-esteem, the authors compared 57 bilingual and 67 unilingual students from grades 9, 10, and 11, measuring their opinions about bilingualism and their self-esteem. The bilingual students are substantially more favorably disposed toward bilingualism than the unilingual students are. On the Janis-Field scale of self-esteem, the bilingual students show greater self-esteem than the unilingual students. The largest differences between the groups are on questions that measure self-confidence and social ease; differences are less pronounced on questions about self-worth and about shyness. We speculate that bilingual proficiency offers some psychological advantages to students who achieve it.     

Satisfaction and closeness in same- and cross-national college roommate relationships: What similarity matters?

Living with a cross-national roommate provides unique opportunities for college students to engage in cross-cultural learning and to form meaningful intercultural relationships. However, little is known about the challenges faced by college students in building a successful cross-national roommate relationship. Based on the similarity hypothesis, this study examined whether or not perceived dissimilarities in living habits or attitudes toward college life accounted for discrepancies between same- and cross-national roommate pairs’ closeness and satisfaction with their roommate relationships. Structural equation modelling with survey data from 479 students (66.4 % female; 13.6 % international students; 17 % with a cross-national roommate) living in on-campus residence halls in a large university in the US showed that college students experiencing cross-national roommate relationships perceived more dissimilarities in living habits and attitudes toward college life than those living with same-nationals, which in turn related to lower levels of roommate satisfaction and/or roommate closeness. However, when perceived dissimilarities along with other variables (including gender, roommate’s study participation status, and roommate assignment method) were controlled, they reported no less satisfaction and even higher levels of closeness than those living with same-national roommates. Findings suggest that the benefits of cross-national affiliations in college residence halls are more likely to occur if educators and staff can help students prepare for and manage perceptions of differences, especially in living habits.     

Addressing Intercultural Experience and Academic Mobility in Higher Education

The present study initially discussed the various aspects of interculturality in higher education and the value of intercultural experience for developing intercultural competence. Then, it investigated the relationship between intercultural experience and students’ progress in their studies from prep year to senior years. The findings indicate that students do not gain intercultural experiences as a natural outcome of progress in higher education. Afterward, the relationship between intercultural experience and motivation for academic mobility was researched. According to the results, having foreign friends and attending intercultural events could be taken as predictors of lenience towards student exchange programs. Finally, the motivating and deterring factors of academic mobility for the participants were determined, and suggestions for future research were made. Participants were 207 students from different study years at a university in Turkey. A mixed questionnaire was employed to obtain data related to students’ intercultural experiences and their perceptions concerning the benefits and barriers of academic mobility.     

Development communication expectations in occupational contexts: A Comparison of U.S. and foreign graduate students

This study focuses on the communication approaches used by experts in development. In line with recent “paradigm shift” issues, this study asks whether foreign and U.S. graduate students have inculcated alternative communication approaches instead of, or in addition to, the predominant “top to bottom” communication approach in their occupational communication roles. A total of 24 foreign and 23 U.S. graduate students from various departments at the University of Washington were asked to describe their expected communication with contact groups above, at the same and at lower status levels. All graduate students showed a marked tendency to exhibit “top to bottom” approaches with contacts of lower status and alternative communication approaches (i.e., bottom to top or interactive) only with peers. Few differences were found between U.S. and foreign, but those that were found were attributed to differing societal and occupational structures. Discussion focused on the lack of a coherent communication approach showing inculcation of more user oriented approaches suggested by the “paradigm shift.”     

Consensual and individual stereotypic beliefs about international students among American host nationals

The present study examined the consensual stereotype of an extraordinarily heterogeneous social group, international students who are sojourning in the United States, among American host nationals. The content and valence of the cultural stereotype was assessed using a multicomponent, free-response methodology with N=100 American college students. On the whole, consensual and individual stereotypic representations of international students were somewhat favorable, although a number of negative attributes were consistently ascribed to the group. The percentages of agreement among participants concerning the attributes of foreign students were substantial, indicating that international students are regarded as a fairly homogenous outgroup by domestic students, notwithstanding the extreme heterogeneity of the foreign student population. Individual stereotypic beliefs about international students were significantly correlated with overall attitudes and behaviors (social contact) toward the group. The negative evaluative content of participants’ individual stereotypic beliefs was strongly related to prejudicial attitudes and social avoidance of the group.     

Impact of Intercultural Communication During Short-term Study-abroad of Japanese Students: Analysis from a Perspective of Cognitive Modification

This study investigates the impact of intercultural communication on Japanese students during short-term study-abroad programmes. Quantitative analysis indicates the students believe study-abroad broadened their views. Semi-structured interviews identify five categories of impact: utilization of English language, interpersonal communication skills, involvement in global society, opening doors to greater possibilities and positive attitudes towards living. To explain these changes, a theory from cognitive behavioural therapy is applied and a cognitive modification model for intercultural communication is proposed. The study presents evidence that intercultural communication can be an opportunity to recognize and modify one’s cognitive appraisals initially grounded in one’s home culture.     

Willingness to Communicate in Intercultural Interactions between Chinese and Americans

This study investigated the differences in willingness to communicate (WTC) between Americans and Chinese living in China and the United States, and the factors affecting WTC between these two nationalities. A battery of questionnaires was administered to 47 American and 54 Chinese college students in China, and 51 American and 42 Chinese college students in the US. Overall Americans were found to be more willing to communicate with Chinese than were Chinese with Americans. Participants living abroad reported higher levels of WTC than those living in their home country. Among Chinese, WTC was positively related to self-perceived communication competence, language competence, immersion time and motivation being positively correlated and negatively associated with CA. Similar results were obtained from Americans, except that immersion time and language competence were not related to WTC.     

Independent effectiveness: A reconsideration of cross-cultural orientation and training1

Despite the good intentions, high energy and unquestionable commitment of most people in the field, cross-cultural orientation and training programs are all too often ineffective because of unintended outcomes. There is a need for a new model, one which will move people toward developing/enhancing the skills they need to become independently effective cross-cultural sojourners. In order to achieve this aim, training and orientation programs must focus on “learning how to learn” rather than on learning a particular fact or set of information. The skill training, described in this article, allows sojourners to develop the means to deal with new situations after the program has ended. It grows out of rigorous experiential training methodology that is in turn based on sound principles of adult education. Rather than leading people toward conclusions (“Don't you think that…?”) or telling participants what they will learn from living abroad, this model requires of trainers an unusually disciplined combination of study, feedback and in-depth knowledge of the educational process.     

The effect of study abroad and personality on cultural intelligence: A deeper understanding using the expanded model of cultural intelligence

Using an expanded assessment of cultural intelligence (CQ), this study provides a detailed analysis of how studying abroad impacts the development of CQ. We examined (1) the effect of a study abroad semester on the development of each of the eleven subdimensions of cultural intelligence – Expanded-CQ or E-CQ over time; and (2) whether personality traits (i.e., extraversion and openness to experience) had a moderating role in the relationship between a study abroad semester and E-CQ in a longitudinal study. Data were collected from 361 students both before (Time 1) and after (Time 2) the study abroad semester. Mixed between-within subjects analysis of variance showed that the study abroad semester did have a statistically significant effect on the development of ten subdimensions of E-CQ over time. Moreover, contrary to our expectations, multiple regression analyses demonstrated that individuals who were low on extraversion improved their metacognitive CQ (awareness) more than did individuals who were high on extraversion. Similarly, individuals who were low on openness to experience improved their metacognitive CQ (awareness), their cognitive CQ (culture-general knowledge), and their motivational CQ (intrinsic interest) more than did individuals who were high on openness to experience. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.