Teaching and learning in further education: The Ofsted factor

The further education (FE) sector in the UK, or post-compulsory education as it is often referred to, has undergone some radical changes in recent years. Historically, FE is synonymous with vocational education and training, providing communities with courses that tended to be in practical, non-academic subjects. Many FE lecturers came from industries such as construction and engineering and were vital in providing the subject knowledge needed by colleges to enable them to offer a wide provision of courses. However, FE had not undergone the regime of teacher qualifications, regulation and inspection to the extent experienced by schools. In 2001, the New Labour government began a series of reforms that would overhaul post-compulsory education with the objective of making the sector more effective, and thereby meeting the wider objective of creating a more productive workforce. One of the many reforms was to introduce a system of inspection by placing FE into Ofsted’s remit. The new reform prompted FE colleges, for the first time, to implement their own institutional policies of observing teaching and learning (OTL) in order to prepare for impending inspection by Ofsted. This article examines the implementation of the policy of OTL, with a focus on one college of FE, and scrutinises its effects on the sector.     

Resource Dependence in the Further Education Marketplace: considerations for the managers of college mergers

Abstract

In 1993 all institutions designated by the government as ‘further education providers’ were removed from local authority control (under the provisions of The Further and Higher Education Act 1992). All such colleges are now responsible for institutional self‐management, a task which, in the context of the current post‐16 education environment, presents a number of challenges.

Allied to a range of government generated targets, further education (FE) institutions find themselves subject to increasingly intense competition from their perceived local rivals. This is significant because a substantial proportion of college funding is based upon student recruitment (as well as the retention upon and the completion of programmes by students). Thus, there is an inevitable emphasis placed upon competing for the available student cohort. At the same time the FE sector is also subject to wider government measures, including the ongoing capital expenditure cuts for the sector introduced in the 1995 Budget.

In the context of considerable external influence and growing competition, many FE colleges are consequently exploring alternative strategies for coping with a complex and uncertain environment. In particular, a growing number of institutions have examined a merger strategy as a response to the pressures within the sector. By 1998, it has been suggested that 100 FE colleges will disappear due to college mergers. It would therefore appear that integration between institutions is at least being explored by a number of colleges, whilst it has been undertaken by a small number of other providers of FE.

The main focus of this article is to examine the motives of colleges seeking to merge with another FE institution, to identify the advantages and disadvantages associated with such a strategy and to explore the important issues for institutions involved in the merger process.

The article is a preliminary study of college mergers within FE and will initially note that the FE market is fundamentally different to an unrestricted, free market. In the context of government regulation it will be asserted, using a resource‐dependence model, that colleges are locked into a financial dependence upon the government. In turn, the government is then able to demand that specific criteria are pursued across the FE sector. On this basis, it will be noted that the merger is an increasingly prominent strategic option for those institutions responding to this financial dependence.

Given the nature of the FE market, the established resource dependence and the characteristics of FE colleges, the article will subsequently examine the perceived advantages and disadvantages derived by institutions pursuing a merger strategy. This will then be extended to embrace an examination of the key management issues that colleges will encounter when considering integration.

The article will therefore be of interest to academics and practitioners focusing on the nature of the external environment and markets in the public sector, the response of FE colleges to markets, competition and the government, and those examining mergers as a strategic option.     

A New Approach to Teacher Training: An Evaluation of a Further and Higher Education Partnership

Abstract

During 1992/93, a scheme was set up at the University of Greenwich in the School of Post Compulsory Education and Training to pilot a new way of delivering the one year full‐time pre‐service CertEd(FE)/PGCE(FE) course. The School entered into formal partnership contracts with 4 selected FE colleges and a combined team of University and FE staff collectively planned, taught and assessed many of the key course components. This article describes aspects of the national and local context which led to this development and evaluates its success. Some contrasts are drawn with school‐based partnerships and the potential of the model to meet some of the profession's major concerns at a time of massive upheaval and change is discussed.     

Institutional policies for part‐time undergraduate higher education in Scotland

Financial pressures, restrictions on full‐time participation and the public commitment to access and lifelong learning, suggest that part‐time provision may be increasingly important in undergraduate‐level higher education. However the scale and organisation of part‐time provision varies across institutions, and its future development may depend on decisions taken at institutional level. This paper describes Scottish institutions’ policies for part‐time provision of first degrees and Higher National Certificates and Diplomas (HNCs and HNDs). It is based on interviews with senior managers in all 23 Scottish higher education institutions (HEIs), and in 11 further education (FE) colleges. Most institutions planned to expand part‐time provision. New (post‐1992) universities were the most committed to expansion; non‐university HEIs and some old universities were the least committed. Policies for expanding part‐time provision were often part of a broader strategy for flexibility. The research revealed two contrasting models of flexibility: many universities pursued flexible integration, bringing full‐ and part‐time study into a common web of provision, whereas FE colleges typically pursued flexible differentiation, maintaining the distinctions between (and within) the modes. Institutional polices were influenced by four sets of factors: institutional mission, other institution‐specific factors, government policy and funding, and demand; funding arrangements and demand were seen as the main drivers. Finally, we question whether the greater formal autonomy of institutions led in practice to more independent decision‐making, and whether the trends anticipated by our interviewees are in fact well entrenched.     

Odd One Out? Some views of lay inspection

A lay inspector is an essential part of the team conducting an Office for Standards in Education (OFSTED) inspection in England. Evidence from a small research project focusing on interpretations of policy for primary mathematics at different levels of the OFSTED system revealed some tensions and lack of clarity about the role of the lay inspector. While expressing positive feelings about many aspects of lay inspection, primary inspectors interviewed felt, on the whole, that limitations in lay inspectors’ experience of teaching and learning meant that the responsibilities allocated to them relating to subject inspection (in this case mathematics) should also be limited. But boundaries were blurred and extensive experience of lay inspection itself could bring its own, perhaps worrying, form of ‘expertise’. Concerns about variations in the quality of lay inspectors were raised by both inspectors and key personnel in schools, variations which might impact on both the process of the inspection itself and the resulting inspection report     

独立学院学生教学督察员队伍的组建与能力提升

学生教学督察员队伍在独立学院教学管理中具有重要作用。在对其管理模式进行阐述的基础上,提出了督察员队伍的建立与能力提升的对策与方法:首先,加强宣传,提高对学生参与教学督察的认同感;其次,营造良好的氛围,提高学生参与教学管理的积极性和主动性;最后,要不断创新工作方式,提升教学督察员的工作能力和自我管理能力。     

‘Walking into a dark room’—the initial impressions of learner‐educators in further education and training

This paper takes as its focus the initial impressions of education and the role of the educator among those entering the ‘profession’ of ‘FE educator’. The research is carried out with those currently working as educators undertaking recognised teaching qualifications through part‐time, in‐service training at either C&G Stage 1 & 2 Combined or PGCE/Cert. Ed. level, at a large college of FE. The conflicting notions of the role of the educator in FE held by researchers in the sector are initially discussed and later compared with the views of the new learner‐educators. The research itself, which is the initial part of a larger study, focuses on the identification of preconceptions of the role of the educator held by educators new to the FE environment and their emotional responses to being in the position of educator. It is carried out through the construction of image‐based rebuses by individual learner‐educators responding to a series of statements and a subsequent oral deconstruction of the rebus during recorded semi‐structured discussions focusing on their views of their specific role(s) and their more general impressions of the educators' role in FE. The investigation identifies a number of key common strands among the opinions expressed by those involved in the study and looks at the impact that the role has on new educators at both a personal and professional level and the potential effect that this may have on the future development of the profession itself.     

Reactions to Inspection: a study of three variants

Individual interviews were conducted with inspectors and teaching staff involved with three primary school inspections in three different LEAs. The interviews took place some time after the end of each inspection when the findings were generally known amongst the teaching staff. The inspections differed according to the degree of negotiation allowed to staff, the extent of inspection coverage, and degree of conformity to a full inspection model. Teacher reactions appeared to vary according to the extent and nature of any ‘surprises’ in the inspection reports and their findings. Some general issues emerged which were concerned with the contextualisation of judgements and the influence of time on the credibility of inspection methods. These issues and those relating to the resourcing of inspections are discussed in the light of the national arrangements for inspection inaugurated by the 1992 Education (Schools) Act and overseen by the Office for Standards in Education (OFSTED).     

The professional identities of teacher educators in three further education colleges: an entanglement of discourse and practice

Initial teacher education programmes have been identified as crucial to meeting the twin policy aims of professionalising the further education (FE) workforce and achieving improved learner outcomes, yet college-based teacher educators are underrepresented in published research and commentary. Drawing on a case study of teacher educators employed by three FE colleges in England, this paper argues that the contested and politicised nature of the FE sector presents a unique set of circumstances that distinguishes this population from other members of their professional group and severely restricts the identities available to them. Through a thematic discursive analysis of documentation, observation and interview data, it is argued that FE positions teacher educator identity through political governance, through the business practices of colleges and through the sector’s historical relationships with vocational and higher education. Within this distinctive context, teacher educators experience competing identities of ‘qualified and credible’, ‘teacher’, ‘different from others’, ‘part of FE’ and ‘employee’ that are entangled with the dominant discourses of English further education. After discussing the implications of these findings for a professional profile of teacher educators, the paper concludes that teacher educators are better understood as a heterogeneous occupational group in order to avoid obscuring professional concerns linked to policy landscapes.     

‘Bowing from the heart’: An investigation into discourses of professionalism and the work of caring for students in further education

Since their incorporation in 1993, further education (FE) colleges in England have been responsible for their own staffing and, faced with funding constraints as well as recruitment and retention targets, some have introduced a new category of staff referred to here as ‘learning support workers’ (LSWs). Though their employment conditions and specific duties vary considerably, LSWs' work often includes providing individual care for students. In this small‐scale study, using semi‐structured interviews, the perceptions of some teachers and LSWs about the nature of their relationships with each other and with students are investigated. The study is set broadly in the context of debates about the impact of public sector reform on FE colleges and teachers. A discourse analysis approach is adopted in discussion of the data. The authors conclude that although they are differently positioned in relation to traditional discourses of professionalism, both teachers and LSWs are perceived to be carrying out what Hochschild termed ‘emotional labour’. The contradictory nature of emotional labour is also highlighted. Some of the implications of employing a new group of workers in FE are discussed.     

Governing the governors: A case study of college governance in English further education

This paper addresses the nature of governors in the governance of further education colleges in an English context. It explores the complex relationship between governors (people/agency), government (policy/structure) and governance (practice), in a college environment. While recent research has focused on the governance of schooling and higher education there has been little attention paid to the role of governors in the lifelong learning sector. The objective of the paper is to contribute to the debate about the purpose of college governance at a time when the Learning and Skills Council commissioning era ends and new government bodies responsible for further education and training, including local authorities, arrive. The paper analyses the nature of FE governance through the perspectives and experiences of governors, as colleges respond to calls from government for greater improvement and accountability in the sector. What constitutes creative governance is complex and controversial in the wider framework of regulation and public policy reform. As with other tricky concepts such as leadership, professionalism and learning, college governance is best defined in the contexts, cultures and situations in which it is located. College governance does not operate in a vacuum. It involves governors, chairs, principals, professionals, senior managers, clerks, community, business and wider agencies, including external audit and inspection regimes. Governance also acts as a prism through which national education and training reforms are mediated, at local level. While governing bodies are traditionally associated with the business of FE—steering, setting the tone and style, dealing with finance, funding, audit and procedural matters—they are increasingly being challenged to be more creative and responsive to the wider society. Drawing on a recent case study of six colleges, involving governors and key policy stakeholders, this paper explores FE governance in a fast changing policy environment.     

Teachers’ Perceptions of School Inspection: a stressful experience

Research into inspection is increasing, although in the past much of it tended to focus on either the perspective of the school management or the inspectors themselves. As part of a 3 year study into inspection, Brimblecombe, Ormston and Shaw have completed a national questionnaire survey and in‐depth interviews focusing on the classroom teacher's experiences of inspection. Whilst the analysis is still in the preliminary stages, several interesting issues have emerged. This paper focuses on one of them‐‐the stress on teachers generated by inspection‐‐and examines what causes it, how it is managed, what forms it takes and what impact it has on the inspection process, the inspection outcomes and the teachers themselves     

Access Courses and Students from Minority Ethnic Backgrounds

Abstract

This article describes a study of the uptake of places on ‘access’ to higher education courses in Scottish further education (FE) colleges by students from minority ethnic backgrounds. Colleges surveyed recruited access students from minority ethnic backgrounds in close approximation to the proportions attracted to FE in general, despite the commitment to prioritise under‐represented groups, including students from minority ethnic communities. The study found a general acceptance of the principle of positive action by colleges, but little evidence of strategies likely to prove effective. It is suggested that the government's agenda for widening participation in education can only be accomplished when the FE sector recognises ethnicity as an important issue.     

What Teachers and Headteachers Think about Inspection

This is a study of 14 inspections of primary and secondary schools carried out by local inspectors in five widely separated areas during 1992 and 1993. The inspection approaches varied and in two cases followed the new OFSTED pattern. Reactions to inspection were gathered through interviews with headteachers and discussions with groups of teachers. Teachers’ reactions are described in relation to: the preparation for inspection; the inspectors as individuals; the inspection process; reporting and follow‐up. It is suggested that some of the concerns associated with these issues will be met by the new OFSTED arrangements. However, OFSTED practice may be less satisfactory in meeting other concerns such as the provision of adequate teacher feedback and the organisation of follow‐up advice and support     

英国学前教育督导的内容、特点及启示

英国《学前教育督导手册》作为督导工作的重要文件依据,规定了英国学前教育督导的指标、等级、组织及实施等内容,从督导前、督导中、督导后三个阶段阐述了督导人员及学前教育机构的职责。文章尝试对最新版本的内容与特点进行分析,突出改进重点,把握督导理念,旨在为我国学前教育相关工作提供借鉴与启示。     

An independent inspectorate? Addressing the paradoxes of educational inspection in 2013

Recent changes in the English education system have resulted in the September 2012 Inspection framework. To a far greater extent than its predecessors this schedule looks to create a stronger relationship between the inspection agency Ofsted (Office for Standards in Education), and to extend the agency's already substantial reach and influence into the areas of teacher professional development and pupil attainment. An explicitly far tougher framework, the 2012 schedule places far greater emphasis on teaching and learning and on lesson observation as a means of judging teacher effectiveness and pupil attainment whilst concomitantly aiming to enhance the credibility of both judgements and agency by creating an enhanced professional relationship between inspectors and school staff. Drawing on Clarke's theoretical framework of performance paradoxes in public service inspection, this paper argues that in attempting to address concerns over the agencies' independence, the 2012 Inspection Framework and concomitant re-modelling of the inspection workforce serve rather to compound them. The paper concludes that this combined with profound changes in the English educational landscape presents problems for the agency which may in the longer term prove intractable.     

“Governing by templates” through new modes of school inspection in Norway

To date, few observational studies have addressed Scandinavian school inspectors in the field, specifically how inspectors use templates to monitor the formative assessment routines of schools and local school authorities. This paper investigates how the current inspection handbook is being adopted and enacted on the municipal level and the school level in Norwegian compulsory schools. Specifically, this study illuminates through observation two empirical examples of how one of the 17 County Governors’ Offices, as part of a larger study, conducted regular, state school inspection. Conceptually, the paper focuses on how inspection guides and steers though use of fixed templates. Analysis shows that inspectors and schools under scrutiny are struggling in combining the traditional focus on legal compliance with a more performative emphasis on formative assessment of students. In addition, the examples given highlight how combining field observation and the concept of “governing by templates” contributes to school inspection studies, in a dynamic policy context undergoing substantial change.     

试论高职院校中督导工作在专职辅导员队伍建设中的作用

本研究是以高职院校专职辅导员队伍建设中相关问题为研究对象,从辅导员队伍建设、辅导员学生管理工作、辅导员培养等方面对高职院校督导工作进行全方位的指导、检查、评价。     

Practitioner Views on the Wider Benefits of Further Education

In this paper, the views of further education (FE) practitioners regarding the 'wider benefits' of FE are examined. The wider benefits are defined as encompassing both non-pecuniary private benefits (such as improved self-esteem, health and quality of life) and those impacting on society as a whole (such as community regeneration and cultural development). Through quantitative and qualitative analysis of questionnaires distributed to practitioners in 35 FE colleges in conjunction with the Learning and Skills Development Agency, the types of benefits arising from FE and the mechanisms involved in the production of those benefits are examined. Results indicate that esteem, self-efficacy and the development of social networks are important benefits of FE and that purposive social interaction is a major factor in producing social benefits. This is particularly the case in health and humanities subjects. The policy implications for FE are that a diverse, socially integrated and less administratively burdened sector is required if wider benefits are to be realised.