论王尔德童话的色彩隐喻——以红、白、金为例

王尔德童话有着数量丰沛的颜色词,呈现出如诗如画的优美情境,而红、白、金是出现频率最高、层次感最多的三种色彩,隐含着多重寓意。三类色彩词汇的并置与对立形成了感官上的冲击,表达出作者的思想矛盾,也对应着不同形象的性格冲突和同一形象的性格发展,作者的宗教情怀及理想困惑也进一步隐喻其中。透过色彩,王尔德童话中所潜藏着的深刻感悟得以自在畅快地流露,同时又给人以完满的审美体验。     

Generalization of causal efficacy judgments after evaluative learning

In three experiments, we examined the effect of response-outcome relations on human ratings of causal efficacy and demonstrated that such efficacy ratings transfer to novel situations through derived stimulus relations. Causal efficacy ratings were higher, and probability of an outcome given a response was lower, for a differential reinforcement of high rate schedule than for either a differential reinforcement of low rate schedule (Experiment 1) or a variable interval schedule (Experiment 2). In Experiment 3, we employed schedules that were equated for outcome probability and noted that ratings of causal efficacy and the rate of response were higher on a variable ratio than on a variable interval schedule. For participants in all three experiments, causal efficacy ratings transferred to the stimulus present during each schedule and generalized to novel stimuli through derived relations. The results corroborate the view that schedules are a determinant of both response rates and causal efficacy ratings. In addition, the novel demonstration of a mechanism of generalization of these ratings via derived relations has clinical implications.     

Symbolic representation in animals: Emergent stimulus relations in conditional discrimination learning

When two initially unrelated stimuli are associated with the same event (e.g., many-to-one conditional discriminations), an emergent relation can develop between those stimuli, allowing them to be interchangeable in other contexts. The source of the emergent relation appears to be a common representation of the two stimuli, and the nature of the representation may be retrospective, involving one of the initial stimuli (probably the stimulus that first enters into association). These emergent relations have been implicated in the establishment of stimulus equivalent relations. However, the failure to find strong evidence for other emergent relations thought to be involved in stimulus equivalence (Sidman, 1990; e.g., bidirectional associations, transitive relations, and functional equivalence associated with one-to-many conditional discriminations) suggests that the mechanisms underlying the emergent relations found using transfer designs following many-to-one training are different from those presumed to underlie stimulus equivalence. On the other hand, evidence for the common representation of stimuli associated with the same arbitrary event extends the nature of those representations beyond those well-established effects found when the common events are biologically important (e.g., the differential outcomes effect).     

Test order effects in simultaneous protocols

Simultaneous protocols typically yield poorer stimulus equivalence outcomes than do other protocols commonly used in equivalence research. Two independent groups of three 3-member equivalence sets of stimuli were used in conditional discrimination procedures in two conditions, one using the standard simultaneous protocol and the other using a hybrid simultaneous training and simple-to-complex testing. Participants completed the two conditions in one long session in Experiment 1, but in separate sessions in Experiment 2. The same stimulus sets used in Experiment 1 were randomized for the two conditions in Experiment 2. Overall, accuracy was better with the hybrid than with the standard protocol in both experiments. The equivalence yield was also better under the hybrid than under the standard protocol in each experiment. The results suggest that the order of testing for emergent relations may account for the difficulty often encountered with the standard simultaneous protocol.     

The transfer of social exclusion and inclusion functions through derived stimulus relations

Previous studies have found that social exclusion can cause distress to those excluded. One method used to study social exclusion is through a virtual ball-toss game known as Cyberball. In this game, participants may be excluded from or included in the ball-toss game and typically report lower feelings of self-esteem, control, belonging, and meaningful existence following exclusion. Experiments 1 and 2 sought to explore the transfer of feelings of exclusion and inclusion through stimulus equivalence classes. In both experiments, participants were trained to form two three-member equivalence classes (e.g., A1–B1, B1–C1; A2–B2, B2–C2) and were tested with novel stimulus combinations (A1–C1, C1–A1, A2–C2, C2–A2). Thereafter, participants were exposed to the Cyberball exclusion and inclusion games. In these games, one stimulus (C1) from one equivalence class was assigned as the Cyberball inclusion game name, whereas one stimulus (C2) from the other equivalence class was assigned as the Cyberball exclusion game name. In Experiment 2, participants were only exposed to the Cyberball exclusion game. During a subsequent transfer test, participants were asked to rate how included in or excluded from they thought they would be in other online games, corresponding to members of both equivalence classes. Participant reported that they felt they would be excluded from online games if the games were members of the same equivalence class as C2. In contrast, participants reported that they felt they would be included in online games if the games were members of the same equivalence class as C1. Results indicated the transfer of feelings of inclusion (Experiment 1) and feelings of exclusion (Experiments 1 and 2) through equivalence classes.     

Taming Test Anxiety: The Activation of Failure-Related Concepts Enhances Cognitive Test Performance of Test-Anxious Students

We investigated processes underlying performance decrements of highly test-anxious persons. Three experiments contrasted conditions that differed in the degree of activation of concepts related to failure. Participants memorized a list of words either containing words related to failure or containing no words related to failure in Experiment 1. In Experiment 2, all participants initially memorized words related to failure, but one experimental condition subsequently required the intentional forgetting of these words, thereby, decreasing the words’ activation in memory. The performance of highly test-anxious participants in unannounced cognitive ability tests following the memorizing phase profited from the activation of failure-related concepts. Experiment 3 replicated this finding by contrasting a condition priming failure–related concepts with a neutral control condition. The results point to a mechanism of suppressing worrying thoughts that is detrimental to test performances of highly test-anxious persons. Bringing the feared threat of failure to their awareness prevents that suppression.     

On Equivalence and Non-equivalence of Words and Phrases In Different Cultures

This paper is mainly focused on the study of the relationship among three concepts, namely, culture,psychological association and equivalence or non-equivalence of words and phrases with combination of Problems posed by my students and discuss three patterns of the relationship with an attempt to describe the importance of culture to equivalence.     

Learning about associatively activated stimulus representations: Implications for acquired equivalence and perceptual learning

Pavlovian conditioning is taken to reflect the formation of links between the central representations of stimuli. A link will be formed when presentation of the relevant stimuli is scheduled in a way that ensures that two representations are activated concurrently. Once this has occurred, a representation can be activated not only by the occurrence of the appropriate stimulus but also by way of the link. Evidence is reviewed to suggest that activation produced by this second route is, in some ways, functionally equivalent to direct activation; in particular, an associatively activated representation (animage) appears capable of forming further associative links with other event representations. Learning about associatively activated stimulus representations may play a role in a range of phenomena. Its contribution to the following is discussed: sensory preconditioning, second-order conditioning, acquired equivalence and distinctiveness, equivalence class formation, and the perceptual learning effect. Finally, consideration is given to the way in which existing theories of associative learning might be modified in order to accommodate this process.     

Measuring the “transfer of meaning” through members of equivalence classes merged via a class-specific reinforcement procedure

Seven participants received conditional discrimination training that established the 12 conditional relations A1B1, A2B2, A3B3, A1C1, A2C2, A3C3, D1E1, D2E2, D3E3, D1F1, D2F2, and D3F3. The A stimuli were pictures of faces portraying emotional expressions; the others were arbitrary forms. Correct responses resulted in presentations of class-specific reinforcers, Sr1, Sr2, and Sr3. After training, tests confirmed the formation of ABC and DEF equivalence classes. Further tests then documented the merger of the classes and the emergence of SrB, SrC, SrE, and SrF relations, showing that the class-specific reinforcers were equivalence class members. Finally, participants did Semantic Differential ratings that tested whether the emotional valence of the A stimuli transferred to the arbitrary forms, B and E. The results show that participants’ evaluations of the B and E stimuli were similar to evaluations of the A stimuli made by participants of a control group. This finding is considered as a demonstration that class-specific outcomes can mediate class merger phenomena and the transfer of functions through members of merged classes.     

Transfer of judgments of control to a target stimulus and to novel stimuli through derived relations

Three experiments examined the effect of response?Coutcome contingencies on human ratings of causal efficacy and demonstrated that such ratings transfer to novel situations through derived stimulus relations. Efficacy ratings generally followed the delta probability rule when positive response-outcome contingencies were employed (Experiment 1) and when some outcomes were not contingent on participants?? responses (Experiment 2). Experiment 3 employed a negative response?Coutcome contingency and manipulated performance expectancies in the task. All three groups overestimated their causal efficacy ratings. A learned helplessness effect was observed when the response?Coutcomes were uncontrollable and in the high-expectancy group when participants?? performance in the task was worse than they had expected. In all experiments, ratings transferred to a stimulus presented during the task and often generalized to novel stimuli through derived relations. These results corroborate the view that outcome probability is a determinant of causal efficacy ratings and that schedules can be employed as UCS in procedures that share characteristics of evaluative conditioning procedures.     

钱钟书修辞学思想之演绎

钱钟书的修辞学思想主要体现在以下几个方面 :首先是他有着“权变”、“辩证”和“和谐”的科学修辞观 ,其次是他对文学修辞的审美追求、语法程度、逻辑理据、心理机制和游戏意味有着独到的理解 ,第三是他的接受修辞理论颇多新见 ,如“活参”、“阐释之循环”、“考辞之终始”等。可以肯定地说 ,钱钟书涉及修辞学范围之广、建树之高 ,在中国修辞学界是绝无仅有的。     

维果茨基的儿童科学概念及其教学启示——基于对《思维与语言》的解读

基于维果茨基的经典著作《思维与语言》,深入梳理其关于科学概念的论述,逐一讨论科学概念的本质、形成过程以及发展规律,探讨维果茨基对科学概念发展的研究为教学带来的启示。维果茨基对科学概念和日常概念作出区分,开创性地指出二者是同一概念形成过程的两个方面。他结合儿童思维发展的特点,重点分析了科学概念的发展方式,指出儿童智力发展与学校教学之间的紧密联系,认为教学先于发展。教师教授科学概念时,儿童的高级心理机能尚未成熟,而是在互动教学中通过与所学概念不断建立内在联系而逐渐发展的。在这个过程中,儿童的主动性、教师的积极性和他们所处的社会环境共同构建了概念的发展,而这些教学概念和方法同时也为科学概念在儿童内部心理机能中的发展提供了有效的路径,不断深化人们对掌握概念和学科知识规律的认识。维果茨基对儿童科学概念的研究为教学研究注入了新的动力、开拓了新的角度,推动了社会建构主义理论的发展。     

Examining pre-service teachers’ color-blind racial ideology,emotion regulation,and inflexibility with stigmatizing thoughts about race

In this study, we examined the relationship between 159 predominately White pre-service teachers’ color-blind racial attitudes, emotion regulation, and psychological inflexibility with stigmatizing thoughts about race. Results indicated strong relationships between color-blind racial ideology and psychological inflexibility with stigmatizing thoughts about race. Specifically, emotion regulation difficulties (suppression strategies) served as a mediator between color-blind racial ideology (unawareness of racial privilege) and psychological inflexibility with stigmatizing thoughts about race. In addition, emotion regulation difficulties (lack of emotional clarity) served as a moderator between color-blind racial ideology (blatant racial issues) and psychological inflexibility with stigmatizing thoughts about race. Similarly, emotion regulation difficulties (impulse control difficulties) served as a moderator between color-blind racial ideology (institutional discrimination) and psychological inflexibility with stigmatizing thoughts about race. The study’s overall findings highlight pre-service teachers’ difficulties with regulating their emotions in racial situations as well as how this difficulty in turn influences their ability to change negative thoughts regarding other racial groups. The study has implications for how pre-service teachers regulate racial emotions in the classroom as well as how they may potentially interact with racially diverse students.     

Derived relations and generalized alteration of preferences

The present study examined the role of derived relations in the generalizability of the evaluative conditioning effect. Healthy university students participated. Four geometrical shapes were first established as discriminative stimuli for the contingent presentation of pictograms (B1, B2, C1, and C2, respectively). We then assessed the reinforcing properties of B1 versus B2, and C1 versus C2 by using simultaneous discrimination tasks: at baseline (baseline assessment), after pairing B1 with aversive slides plus noise and B2 with pleasant slides (test I), and after employing equivalence training and testing to establish B1 as equivalent to C1 and B2 as equivalent to C2 (test II). Most participants (82 %) in the experimental condition, as compared with the control conditions (17 % and 10 %), selected the discriminative shapes for B2 (test I) and C2 (test II) on most trials, replicating and extending previous findings. Subsequently, the geometrical shapes were established as equivalent to the letters X, Y, W, and Z, respectively, which then served as antecedent stimuli in simultaneous discrimination tasks as before (test III). As was expected, only participants in the experimental condition showed preference for the novel letters that were established as equivalent to B2-producing and C2-producing shapes. These findings suggest that the evaluative conditioning effect may extend far beyond the stimulus being de/valuated and narrow the behavioral repertoire.     

Proper Listening,Proper Heeding: A Midwifery of Thought

This paper seeks to demonstrate the way in which a group of second year BA Fine Art in Context students and I worked to demystify the process of academic essay writing and to set about the task of examining their own creative thinking and its relation to their art practice. It is also a tribute to the dedication they brought to the project. Fifty students took part, but it is with regret that for reasons of space only nine examples could be selected as representative of their wide-ranging scope and expertise. These are presented in three broad categories that the work overall suggested; the use of materials to symbolise and communicate ideas; the layering of combinations of images, thoughts and words; the juxtapositioning of words, objects and images to indicate the struggle to integrate and relate them, as well as the innate intractability of the materials thoughts and words themselves.     

How inconvenient assumptions affect preservice teachers’ uptake of new interactional patterns in mathematics: analysis and aspiration through a bifocal lens

In this paper, I highlight the inadequacies of contemporary theoretical and philosophical orthodoxies to fully address pedagogic change. The required change is in mathematics education, and it has to do with enabling preservice teachers, upon graduation, to rework extant power relations in implementing new interactional patterns that centre the mathematics and the learner in dynamic, productive interaction. I interpret data from published research and my own teaching using psychological, overlaid with poststructuralist, constructs of the relationship between knowledge and action. In data interpretation I read through the words for a psychological interpretation (meaning), and I look at the words for poststructuralist indications of subjectification and identity formation (related to how well students recognise themselves as full participants in the combined discourses of mathematics and education). I have my cake and eat it; contradictory notions of the learner and learning to teach in innovative ways are held together to demonstrate (a) how it can happen that a teacher educator’s aspirations can be held ransom to constituted assumptions that inconveniently work against change, and (b) how the recognition that humanist assumptions, mathematical proficiency and agency are discursively constituted (Davies, 1990) can suggest avenues for change in teacher education.     

The Evolution of Thought

We investigate the evolution of thought using the method of historical reconstruction, the theory of the cultural and historical determinism of psychological development, data on the relationship between morphological studies, modern findings about child development, and the scientific understanding of neural morphogenesis. We argue for classifying protothinking as a separate category to describe a stage when the person thinks objectively without being aware of this process. It is shown that protothinking is a transitional stage between animal thinking and human verbal thinking. We devote particular attention to the process whereby words and verbally expressed thoughts originated. We formulate the conditions that make it possible to trace the process of how speech came into being as sound combinations that are designed to express thought. It is emphasized that individuals are always responsible for discovering words for themselves. We discuss the origins of language, and we note the creative nature of this process.     

Acquired equivalence and generalized suppression in a virtual reality environment

Acquired equivalence was investigated using a virtual reality conditioned suppression task administered in a first-person-shooter game. Two visual cues, A1 and B1, were followed by a tone (O1), and another two cues, A2 and B2, were followed by another tone (O2). During differential Pavlovian conditioning, A1 was paired with an instructed unconditioned stimulus (US) consisting of a flashing white screen, whereas A2 was not. All cues and outcomes were then presented at test, in the absence of the US, and suppression ratios were calculated for multiple response topographies (shots, hits, and breaks). Clear evidence of the suppression of shots was seen for A1 and B1, with no suppression being seen for either A2 or B2. Presentations of O1 and O2 resulted in significant suppression of shots and hits, whereas only O1 led to the suppression of breaks. The US expectancy ratings were consistent with these behavioral results. The findings are discussed in the light of differing accounts of acquired equivalence.     

Childhood maltreatment and perceived stress in young adults: The role of emotion regulation strategies,self-efficacy,and resilience

Childhood maltreatment has many deleterious outcomes; however, trait resilience as well as emotion regulation strategies, including suppression and reappraisal, may mediate between childhood maltreatment and later perceived stress. For this study, 267 college students (183 females and 84 males; M age = 19.77, SD = 2.29) completed self-report measures of parental psychological and physical maltreatment, parental emotion neglect, habitual use of suppression and reappraisal strategies, emotion regulation self-efficacy, trait resilience, and recent perceived stress. Analyses were conducted to investigate gender-specific associations. In females, both suppression and reappraisal mediated the relationship between maternal/paternal emotional neglect and perceived stress, and suppression also mediated the relationship between maternal psychological maltreatment and perceived stress. Trait resilience mediated the relationships of all three types of maternal maltreatment, paternal psychological maltreatment, and paternal emotional neglect with perceived stress in females. There were no significant mediation effects in males. Thus, interventions aiming at reducing perceived stress associated with maternal or paternal emotional neglect or maternal psychological maltreatment in women may benefit from targeting both suppression and reappraisal. Such interventions may also be enhanced by efforts to strengthen trait resilience.     

Factors Affecting the Difficulty of Verbal Analogies

The purpose of this study was to examine factors that affect the difficulty of verbal analogies in a psychometric exam. Two types of attributes were derived from theoretical cognitive models: (a) knowledge attributes, which were defined by word rarity and the degree to which the relation between the words was intensional, and (b) process attributes, which were defined by the existence of a negative component in the relation between the words, the order of the words, and the extent to which the relations were direct. A total of 104 analogies were characterized using these 5 attributes. Both knowledge and process attributes were found to contribute to the difficulty of verbal analogies.