Extending Responsiveness to Intervention to Mathematics at First and Third Grades

Responsiveness to intervention (RTI) is an innovative approach to the identification of learning disabilities (LD). The central assumption is that RTI can differentiate between two explanations for low achievement: poor instruction versus disability. If the child responds poorly to validated instruction, then the assessment eliminates instructional quality as a viable explanation for poor academic growth and instead provides evidence of a disability. For children who do respond nicely, RTI serves a critical prevention function. Most of RTI research has been focused on early reading. In this article, we describe two ongoing programs of research on RTI in the area of mathematics: one on a comprehensive mathematics curriculum at first grade and the other focused on word problems at third grade. For each research program, we describe the sample, explain how students are identified as at risk for mathematics disability, provide an overview of the interventions to which responsiveness is gauged, and describe some results to date.     

Long-Term Effects of First-Grade Multitier Intervention

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to compare the long-term effects of 2 first-grade Response to Intervention (RTI) models (Dynamic and Typical RTI) on the reading performance of students in second and third grade. Participants included 419 first-grade students (352 in second grade and 278 in third grade after attrition). Students were classified based on first-grade screeners as at risk or not at risk and then based on their RTI (no risk [NR], relative easy to remediate [ER], and requiring sustained remediation [SR]). Students in the dynamic RTI condition had higher reading comprehension scores at the end of third grade. At the end of second grade, ER and SR students had lower reading scores than NR students. At the end of third grade, there were no differences in reading skills between ER and NR students, but SR students had lower scores than NR students. ER students in the dynamic RTI condition had higher reading scores at the end of second grade than those in the typical RTI condition. Limitations and directions for future research are discussed.     

Response to intervention: Accountability in action

Response to Intervention (RTI) is a popular if controversial initiative developed largely in the USA, but which is, as yet, little known in general education in Australia. However, this may change given the increased attention to accountability in recent times. The national NAPLAN and international PISA assessments are leading to pressure being placed on schools to lift student performance. It is possible that RTI may be seen by school systems as a means of providing data demonstrating effectiveness, and also a way of providing a direction for schools' responses to that data. The expectation that general education teachers provide evidence-based instruction and regular progress monitoring would, however, represent a significant change when compared to current practice in Australia. This paper presents a brief history of the development of RTI, an introduction to the RTI framework and its application in regular and special education. It also examines some of the issues that would arise if it were to be introduced into Australian mainstream education.     

Understanding the Philosophical Foundations of Disabilities to Maximize the Potential of Response to Intervention

In the United States and elsewhere in the world, disabilities are being studied by two different schools of thought: special education and disability studies. In the field of special education, analyses are often pragmatic and instrumental. In contrast, analyses in the field of disability studies are often historical and cultural, explaining disabilities as constructed by social value. This lack of agreement about disabilities leads us to ask: How can practitioners and researchers begin to address the issue of which students might need intensive interventions for their disabilities through the response to intervention (RTI) approach when disabilities are viewed so differently by scholars in the field? In this article I compare and contrast the philosophical foundations of disabilities in special education and disability studies and conclude that the dimensions of pragmatic, instrumental, historical, and cultural factors must be taken into account in order to achieve both the macro and micro levels of RTI implementation.     

The response to intervention of English language learners at risk for reading problems

The response to intervention (RTI) of English language learners identified as at risk for reading difficulties in the fall of first grade was examined at the end of first grade and at the end of second grade. Students at risk for reading problems were randomly assigned to intervention or control groups. Intervention students received supplemental reading intervention daily for 50 minutes in small groups from October to April. Students in the comparison condition received the school's existing instructional program for struggling readers. Criteria were established to determine adequate RTI at the end of first grade and at the end of second grade. The results indicated that more students who participated in the first-grade intervention in either Spanish or English met the established RTI standards than students who did not, and this finding was maintained through the end of second grade.     

What We Need to Know About Responsiveness To Intervention (and Shouldn't Be Afraid to Ask)

During the past several years, one of the most frequently addressed topics at conferences and in professional journals is responsiveness to intervention (RTI). This is because it is viewed by many as a new way to think about both early intervention and disability identification. Despite its relative newness, a subset of RTI proponents contend researchers and practitioners know everything they need to know to implement it effectively. We disagree and argue that the smartest and most responsible way to move forward with RTI implementation is to recognize what all of us collectively do know and do not know. In this article, we identify unresolved issues—general and specific—important to RTI implementation, teacher effectiveness, and student achievement.     

Smart RTI: A Next-Generation Approach to Multilevel Prevention

During the past decade, responsiveness to intervention (RTI) has become popular among many practitioners as a means of transforming schooling into a multilevel prevention system. Popularity aside, its successful implementation requires ambitious intent, a comprehensive structure, and coordinated service delivery. An effective RTI also depends on building-based personnel with specialized expertise at all levels of the prevention system. Most agree on both its potential for strengthening schooling and its heavy demand on practitioners. In this article, we describe Smart RTI, which we define as making efficient use of school resources while maximizing students' opportunities for success. In light of findings from recent research, we discuss three important features of Smart RTI: (a) multistage screening to identify risk, (b) multistage assessment to determine appropriate levels of instruction, and (c) a role for special education that supports prevention.     

美国特殊儿童学业困难反应模式——RTI模式

全纳教育的发展凸显了各国在响应所有特殊儿童的特殊教育需要上存在的问题。美国采用RTI模式为学业上存在困难的学生提供支持和服务。RTI模式的提出基于美国国内教育的现状和理论、实践上的研究成果,其三级干预模式能对有特殊教育需要的儿童做出迅速、有效的反应。RTI模式作为一种新的特殊儿童学业困难反应模式,因其自身特点而比以往模式更具优势,但也存在一些问题。     

Examining School Psychologists' and Teachers' Application of Approaches Within a Response to Intervention Framework

Approaches consistent with a Response to Intervention (RTI) framework are becoming increasingly prominent. The present study is a preliminary investigation aimed at gaining a greater understanding of educators' knowledge of RTI and application of RTI principles. It serves as the first step toward understanding educators' preparation to implement these mandated changes. Educators (308) completed an online study to assess their knowledge of tasks inherent in RTI procedures. Respondents were asked to rate their familiarity with RTI principles. Then, respondents were asked to interpret graphical data that were consistent with RTI screening and progress monitoring approaches. Overall, results indicated that the majority of educators perceived themselves as having the knowledge to implement RTI practices. However, when asked to apply RTI-consistent principles, not all were successful. Specifically, school psychologists were better at interpreting and making decisions based on graphical data relative to general and special education teachers. There may be a disconnect between the expectations inherent in an RTI model and teachers' ability to meet these expectations. School psychologists may be positioned to support teachers in this area. The implications of these results for implementing RTI practices and developing professional development programs for general and special educators in elementary schools are discussed.     

The Contradictions in Science Education Peer Review and Possibilities for Change

The final paper in this special issue of Research in Science Education is a synthesis of the articles that comprise the special issue. The main part of the article consists of a metalogue between the two authors in which we identify critical issues associated with peer review and highlight theory and practices we regard as salient to the continued improvement of science education.     

Response-to-intervention (RTI) as a model to facilitate inclusion for students with learning and behaviour problems

Many students with learning and behaviour problems are routinely excluded from regular education. Although calls have been made to educate students with these problems in the same settings as their typically developing peers, it remains unclear how best to support their needs for academic and behavioural support. We address this question first by describing response-to-intervention (RTI), a specific model of prevention and early intervention for learning and behaviour problems. A comprehensive summary of the RTI literature is provided. Second, we will discuss the feasibility and applicability of RTI as one approach to facilitate inclusion of students with learning and behaviour problems. Specifically, we will demonstrate how RTI can be used to address at least four barriers to inclusion by (1) providing a clear implementation strategy for inclusion practices; (2) clearly defining the roles, responsibilities and collaboration of general and special education teachers; (3) enabling the allocation of resources for instruction and intervention; and (4) avoiding early and unnecessary labelling of students with learning and behaviour problems. Third, limitations of RTI as a model to facilitate inclusion will be discussed.     

On the importance of a cognitive processing perspective: an introduction

Children with learning problems require early intervention. If it is evidence based and implemented with integrity and intensity, it will accelerate the academic progress of many students. This is the hope and expectation of the many supporters of responsiveness-to-intervention (RTI). A minority of children, however, will not respond sufficiently to such intervention because of learning disorders like specific learning disabilities (SLD). Some RTI models do not include research-backed methods to identify these children, nor do RTI practitioners often produce the data necessary to develop individualized instruction for them. The authors suggest practitioners go beyond typical RTI assessment data documenting responsiveness/ unresponsiveness to conduct comprehensive evaluations of these most difficult-to-teach students and to include in their evaluations carefully chosen cognitive measures. This special issue presents the work of teams of researchers, which suggests that cognitive and neuropsychological assessments can provide information to further understand SLD, which in turn can guide development of promising interventions.     

Solomon Islands school leaders readiness for inclusive education

In this paper, I critically examine the discourse surrounding response to intervention (RTI), a US-based education reform that has garnered a considerable amount of attention (as well as controversy) in a very short amount of time. A multi-pronged reform effort, RTI is a tiered approach to delivering instructional intervention to students at risk, an on-going and systematic model of monitoring student performance, as well as an alternative to the ability/achievement discrepancy model for identifying learning disabilities. In this paper, I argue, however, that RTI is not so much a reform but a tactic, aimed at returning to the status quo of segregated special education and reinvigorating many of the foundational assumptions of traditional special education practice.     

RTI,Equity, and the Return to the Status Quo: Implications for Consultants

ABSTRACT

The federal RTI policy came into effect in 2004, and saw widespread diffusion. The culture of policy framework explicates the design inherent to the life cycles of equity-oriented top-down policies – how they get made, spread, and mutate. In this critical qualitative inquiry, we interviewed six white teachers about RTI, and their experiences of using its principles to serve Black students. Using the culture of policy framework, we conducted theoretical thematic analysis of the interview data to understand the rituals and ideologies driving the local enactments of RTI. Main findings involved a compliance-driven RTI, and deficit-based interpretations of students’ poor responses to inadequate Tier 2/3 supports. Tiers became a typology for classifying students similar to special education labels. These findings provide a glimpse into RTI’s appropriation into the existing system. We discuss recommendations to help consultants develop transformative anti-oppressive practice.     

The Changing Landscape of Special Education Administration

Effective leadership and administrative support for special education are critical issues in today's schools. The field of special education administration is gaining attention in the literature as professionals seek ways to foster accountability and drive change in ways that support the success of students with disabilities and their teachers. The purpose of this special issue of Exceptionality is to address current issues in special education administration and to explore promising directions. This introductory article provides a conceptual overview of the collaborative nature of special education administration, including issues of instructional, ethical, and teacher leadership. This article is intended to serve as a foundation for the succeeding articles within this special issue addressing key concerns within the field.     

RTI models as alternatives to traditional views of learning disabilities: Response to the commentaries

Two commentaries in this issue, one by Torgesen and one by Fuchs and Fuchs, are largely supportive of our views of the value of implementing response to intervention (RTI) models in schools. In contrast, Reynolds and Shaywitz's criticisms of RTI represent traditional and often nonempirical views of learning disabilities (LDs). The evidence base on RTI is not empty, and Reynolds and Shaywitz fail to provide research support for their views of either LDs or RTI.     

Identifying specific learning disability: is responsiveness to intervention the answer?

Responsiveness to intervention (RTI) is being proposed as an alternative model for making decisions about the presence or absence of specific learning disability. I argue that there are many questions about RTI that remain unanswered, and radical changes in proposed regulations are not warranted at this time. Many fundamental issues related to RTI are unresolved, and a better strategy may be to more rigorously implement existing identification criteria (e.g., discrepancy and psychological processing deficits) in a structured psychometric framework. Suggestions on how to modify present procedures are provided.     

Race-reimaging educational psychology research: Investigating constructs through the lens of race and culture

Despite increasing racial and cultural diversity in the United States and many other industrialized countries, less than 2% of research published in top-tier educational psychology journals authentically examines the experiences of racial and cultural minorities. Through this special issue, we not only aim to increase representation of these populations in our research, but we also strive to promote greater integrity in how racial and cultural constructs are managed in the theories, methods, analyses, and interpretations of educational psychology research. In this introduction article, we define and discuss race-reimaging in educational psychology. Further, we briefly review the historical and contemporary issues in conventional psychological research that necessitate race-reimaging and underscore its appeal. Subsequently, we introduce each article in the special issue and speak to how its respective race-reimaging qualities inform as well as extend traditional educational psychology constructs. Finally, we point to special guest commentary by Paul Schutz and conclude with implications for race-reimaged research broadly.