Doping control in sport: An investigation of how elite athletes perceive and trust the functioning of the doping testing system in their sport

Doping testing is a key component enforced by anti-doping authorities to detect and deter doping in sport. Policy is developed to protect athletes’ right to participate in doping-free sport; and testing is a key tool to secure this right. Accordingly, athletes’ responses to anti-doping efforts are important. This article explores how the International Standards for Testing, which face different interpretations and challenges when policy is implemented, are perceived by elite athletes. Particularly, this article aims to investigate how elite athletes perceive the functioning of the testing system (i.e., the efforts of stakeholders involved in testing) in their own sport both nationally and worldwide. Moreover, it seeks to identify whether specific factors such as previous experience of testing and perceived proximity of doping have an impact on athletes’ perceptions of the testing system. The study comprises a web-based questionnaire (N = 645; response rate 43%) and uses qualitative findings to elaborate on and explain quantitative results. Results showed that two-thirds of the athletes reported the national testing programme in their sport to be appropriate. A majority of the athletes who had an opinion on the subject regarded testing programmes in some countries as not extensive enough or believed that in certain countries doping control was downgraded to win medals. Past experience of testing seemed to have a positive influence on trust in the concrete measures; however, if athletes experienced flaws during the control procedures, this could increase distrust and cause worry. The proximity of doping in an athlete's sport influenced the athlete's perception of the testing system. Particularly, athletes who need the testing system to be effective and to function well across the world show greater distrust of or dissatisfaction with the current testing system. The athletes’ diverging views indicate that contemporary anti-doping policy is simultaneously met with support, (dis)trust and frustration. By integrating the views and experiences of Danish elite athletes, this study confirms that the current testing system is confronted with obstacles, and it contributes knowledge about some of the challenges WADA faces when policy is implemented. Implications of results and recommendations for anti-doping authorities are outlined in the paper.     

兴奋剂检测中使用运动员生物护照的法律问题

随着兴奋剂制造技术的发展,传统的尿检和血检方法已经不能完全检测出某些新型的兴奋剂,因此国际体育界开始采用运动员生物护照技术,根据运动员生物生理指标的变化确定是否服用兴奋剂。该标准已经得到了若干国际体育组织和国家的认可,也得到了国际体育仲裁院的承认。我国未来的兴奋剂检测可以考虑采用该标准,但要首先完善有关的法律法规。在充分保障运动员享有的隐私权、公正裁判权和公平听审权等基本权益的同时,也要对拒绝接受抽样或者错过抽样的运动员给予与兴奋剂阳性结果同等的处罚。尤其是对进行兴奋剂检测或者疑似服用兴奋剂的运动员,在裁决处理过程中要尊重其享有的基本法律权益,这是一般法律原则和国际人权法的要求,而不需要借助具体的法条。     

Sleep/wake behaviours of elite athletes from individual and team sports

Abstract

Sleep is an essential component for athlete recovery due to its physiological and psychological restorative effects, yet few studies have explored the habitual sleep/wake behaviour of elite athletes. The aims of the present study were to investigate the habitual sleep/wake behaviour of elite athletes, and to compare the differences in sleep between athletes from individual and team sports. A total of 124 (104 male, 20 female) elite athletes (mean ± s: age 22.2 ± 3.0 years) from five individual sports and four team sports participated in this study. Participants' sleep/wake behaviour was assessed using self-report sleep diaries and wrist activity monitors for a minimum of seven nights (range 7–28 nights) during a typical training phase. Mixed-effects analyses of variances were conducted to compare the differences in the sleep/wake behaviour of athletes from two sport types (i.e. individual and team). Overall, this sample of athletes went to bed at 22:59 ± 1.3, woke up at 07:15 ± 1.2 and obtained 6.8 ± 1.1 h of sleep per night. Athletes from individual sports went to bed earlier, woke up earlier and obtained less sleep (individual vs team; 6.5 vs 7.0 h) than athletes from team sports. These data indicate that athletes obtain well below the recommended 8 h of sleep per night, with shorter sleep durations existing among athletes from individual sports.     

Universalism and the spirit of sport: evidence from Greece and Australia

Despite the World Anti-Doping Code’s 11-value Spirit of Sport statement being declared the universal ethical basis for global sporting practice, there is no empirical evidence whether the Spirit statement is the universal ethical basis for sport. Best-worst scaling surveys were completed by five independent (two Greek and three Australian) to determine whether there is cultural variation in which values were considered important or unimportant to sport. The results indicate Greeks and Australians mostly agree about what is unimportant to sport, but vary in terms of what is considered important. The variation indicates that the ethical justification for anti-doping may be less than universal. Moreover, the findings point to the need for more research into the Spirit statement as the proscribed universal ethical basis for a global practice, including philosophical and ethical inquiry, and how people understand both the individual values and the Spirit statement as a whole.     

优秀跳远运动员起跳速度对成绩影响的探讨

本文从宏观和微观两个角度探讨了起跳速度对优秀跳远运动员成绩的影响。研究表明:跳远运动员在起跳阶段的速度损失是相对恒定的,在采用最大可控速度助跑的基础上,起跳技术训练的重点应该放在如何尽量大的提高起跳阶段的垂直速度上来,而过分强调起跳着板阶段起跳脚的“扒地”动作是不可取的。     

海南省东部地区业余体校人才现状与改善对策

通过对海南省东部地区6所业余体校进行访问、调查，分析了业余体校及其教练员、运动员的现状及存在的问题。结果表明：业余体校的场地、器材设施基本满足训练的需要；训练经费不足；教练员的人数少，职称低，学历低，科研能力差；运动员的训练补助低，住宿条件差。根据实际情况，提出了改善业余体校人才状况的对策。     

集体项目和个人项目运动员自信心的比较研究

对集体项目和个人运动项目进行比较，分析运动员自信心的差异及影响运动员自信心的主观和客观因素，对造成运动员自信心差异的因素进行分析讨论，论证了运动项目的差异是不同项目运动员自信心差异的主要来源，运动项目和性别、训练年限的交互作用也是造成运动员自信心差异的主要原因，并详细分析运动员在特质自信和状态自信的差异及来源。     

关于竞技体育职业化发展与部队体工队院校化管理的研究

根据我国竞技体育职业化发展的大趋势，提出了部队体工队实行院校化管理的理论构想和基本模式，以及需要解决的主要问题。     

我国技能主导项群奥运项目优秀 运动员运动寿命的特征

比较分析1996年各项目年度最高赛事和2005年第10届全运会的比赛成绩,发现我国技能主导类奥运项目中对抗类项群运动员的运动寿命长于表现类项群;在对抗类项群中,同场对抗和隔网对抗项群,即球类运动员的运动寿命长于格斗项群运动员;表现难美性项群的女运动员运动寿命比男运动员短;技能主导项群运动员的运动寿命与运动成绩有可能存在正比的关系。     

A method to assess the influence of individual player performance distribution on match outcome in team sports

This study developed a method to determine whether the distribution of individual player performances can be modelled to explain match outcome in team sports, using Australian Rules football as an example. Player-recorded values (converted to a percentage of team total) in 11 commonly reported performance indicators were obtained for all regular season matches played during the 2014 Australian Football League season, with team totals also recorded. Multiple features relating to heuristically determined percentiles for each performance indicator were then extracted for each team and match, along with the outcome (win/loss). A generalised estimating equation model comprising eight key features was developed, explaining match outcome at a median accuracy of 63.9% under 10-fold cross-validation. Lower 75th, 90th and 95th percentile values for team goals and higher 25th and 50th percentile values for disposals were linked with winning. Lower 95th and higher 25th percentile values for Inside 50s and Marks, respectively, were also important contributors. These results provide evidence supporting team strategies which aim to obtain an even spread of goal scorers in Australian Rules football. The method developed in this investigation could be used to quantify the importance of individual contributions to overall team performance in team sports.     

语言、意义和历史境域中的体育基本理论问题

无"境域"地考证体育基本理论问题不仅无效反而生乱,盖因这类属于体育人文社会学问题的探讨要受到所讨论问题的境域限定。围绕体育的存在特质,在"语言境域"、"意义境域"、"时间境域"三境的"缠绕"中考察体育的本质、功能和起源,并且关注人类与其所创造的文化作品之间的"互构共生",也许就是实质性地解决体育人文社会学领域中的基本难题的方法。     

Coach ratings of skills and their relations to practice,play and successful transitions from youth-elite to adult-professional status in soccer

Elite soccer players (~15 yr) from professional academies in the UK were rated on technical, tactical, physical and creative skills by coaches at time 1 (T1). Players estimated accumulated hours in soccer practice (coach-led activities) and play (self-led activities) during childhood. Coach-ratings were again collected 2.5 yr later (T2) for players that received a professional contract (~17 yr). Adult-professional status was determined at T3 (~ 20 yr). Skill ratings distinguished across the three “future” groups (academy-only, youth-professional only and adult-professional), for all but creative skill. For players that transitioned to youth-professional, medium sized correlations were noted between childhood practice amounts and technical and creative skill ratings at T1, although practice amounts correlated more strongly with skill ratings at T2. Play amounts were not related to any skills. Within groups of youth elite athletes, domain-specific play in childhood, and to a lesser degree practice, were generally not good discriminators of specific-skills. The effects of sport-specific practice on the development (and discriminability) of skills takes time to emerge. We consider the implications for talent development models and purported links between play and creativity.     

竞技体育政策的全球化与重建——从行政控制到网络化管理

简要介绍了自我管理体制的概念,分别说明了系统管理、政策管理、组织管理3种管理方式及其在竞技运动政策领域中的应用。最后思考了英国竞技运动管理体制的某些方面,包括政府为竞技运动发展、高水平竞技运动和学校竞技运动所制订的政策。     

从我国体育价值的双重性看体育强国建设中的价值选择

中国体育价值正向价值双重性的方向转变。由于我国体育价值的双重性及主体需要的多样性,体育强国建设中的价值选择需遵循如下原则:合目的性与合规律性相统一,社会选择与个体选择相统一;兼顾全面与优先发展相统一,主动引导与强制促动相统一。     

2003～2005年世锦赛暨奥运会远跳项目冠军运动员的比赛安排

l前言田径远跳项目包括男女跳远和三级跳远，在这几个项日上我国运动员在世界大赛上都曾取得过辉煌成绩。但近10多年来，除女子三级跳远外，其余三个项目成绩、大赛名次与以往情况大相径庭。本文试图通过对2《X)3年世锦赛、2(X科年奥运会、2(x)5年世锦赛男女跳远、三级跳远第一     

从北京奥运会奖牌榜剖析世界体坛竞争格局

奥运会奖牌榜总体反映各参赛国的总体实力,它较为直观清晰地反映世界体坛的大体竞争格局和发展态势。对第29届奥运会奖牌榜统计分析显示：1）世界体坛的总体竞争格局未发生重大的改变;2）欧洲依然是世界竞技体育运动的中心;3）世界体坛延续着“强者更强、弱者恒弱、强弱明显”的两极分化态势;4）世界体坛正处于分化加剧、重构秩序的嬗变期。     

Evolution of game-play in the Australian Football League from 2001 to 2015

This study investigated the evolution of game-play manifested via team performance indicator characteristics in the Australian Football League (AFL) from the 2001 to 2015 seasons. The mean values for 18 performance indicators were collated for every AFL team over 15-seasons. A multivariate analysis was used to uncover temporal trends in the dataset. Compared to the 2004 season, the 2005 to 2010 seasons were characterised by large growth in the counts of handballs (d = 0.83; 90% CI = 0.22–1.43), disposals (d = 1.24; 90% CI = 0.59–1.87), uncontested possessions (d = 1.37; 90% CI = 0.71–2.01), clangers (d = 2.14; 90% CI = 1.39–2.86) and marks (d = 1.43; 90% CI = 0.76–2.07). Contrastingly, the effective disposal percentage declined rapidly during the same period. The number of inside 50 m counts remained stable throughout the 15-season period. The ordination plot of league-wide performance indicator characteristics illustrated a distinct cluster from the 2001 to 2004 seasons, an abrupt shift from the 2005 to 2009 seasons, and an emergent (re)stabilisation from the 2010 to 2015 seasons. The results demonstrate the synchronous league-wide evolution of game-play in the AFL from the 2001 to 2015 seasons. Amongst other constituents, this evolution likely reflects the introduction of modernised coaching strategies, rule changes and changing perceptions of rule interpretations.     

关于浙江省各地市运动项目布局和第12届省运会竞赛规程改革的若干思考

针对如何使各地市竞技体育的发展战略与全省乃至全国的竞技体育发展战略更趋一致,文章探讨了浙江省各地市运动项目布局的前提条件和理论基础,探索了浙江省第12 届省运会上的项目设置、人才交流和奖牌计分的具体原则和方法;阐明了竞赛体制改革的方向、改革的道路和改革突破口。     

广西地级市少数民族体育旅游竞争力分析

通过构建广西14个地级市少数民族体育旅游竞争力评价指标体系,运用因子分析、聚类分析等方法,评估了广西14个地级市的少数民族体育旅游竞争力水平。在影响广西14个地级市少数民族体育旅游竞争力的43项评估指标体系中,城市综合发展实力、旅游竞争业绩、旅游吸引物、相关依托、对外联系、旅游环境支持、环境质量等等是主要的影响因子。广西西南部的南宁市、东北部的桂林市和柳州市、西北部的河池市和百色市等地级市少数民族体育旅游竞争力排在前5位,而广西东南部、中南部等地级市少数民族体育旅游竞争力普遍较弱。     

河北省竞技体育后备人才常见运动损伤的治疗方法及效果分析

研究目的:分析河北省竞技体育后备人才运动损伤的治疗方法及效果。方法:以河北省体育运动学校和石家庄市体育运动学校在校的9个项目489名专业运动员为调查对象,采用调查问卷的形式调查运动员损伤后采用的治疗方法及其效果。结果:在所调查的运动项目中损伤频次最高的是踝关节,其次是腰部和膝关节。踝关节损伤最常用的治疗方法是冷敷,其次是针灸和加压包扎,治疗的总有效率为83.7%。膝关节损伤最常用的治疗方法是针灸,其次是冷敷和按摩,治疗的总有效率为65.3%。腰部损伤最常用的治疗方法是针灸,其次是按摩和理疗。治疗的总有效率为67.6%。结论:踝关节、腰部和膝关节是运动损伤中最常见的几个部位。早期的处理时间及方法尤为重要,并关系到其治疗效果和预后。针灸、按摩等中医方法的运用比较普遍,并且取得了较好的治疗效果。