The effects of high resistance–few repetitions and low resistance–high repetitions resistance training on climbing performance

The aim of the study was to compare the effects of different strength training intensities on climbing performance, climbing-specific tests and a general strength test. Thirty lower grade and intermediate-level climbers participated in a 10-week training programme. The participants were randomized into three groups: high resistance–few repetitions training groups (HR-FR), low resistance–high repetitions training groups (LR-HR) and a control group (CON) which continued climbing/training as usual. Post-testing results demonstrated statistical tendencies for climbing performance improvements in the HR-FR and LR-HR (p?=?0.088–0.090, effect size?=?0.55–0.73), but no differences were observed between the groups (p?=?0.950). For the climbing-specific tests, no differences were observed between the groups (p?=?0.507–1.000), but the HR-FR and LR-HR improved their time in both Dead-hang (p?=?0.004–0.026) and Bent-arm hang (p?<?0.001–0.002). The HR-FR and LR-HR improved their 12RM strength in pull-down (p?≤?0.001), but not the CON group (p?=?0.250). No differences were observed in the CON group in any of the tests (p?=?0.190–0.596) with the exception of improvement in Bent-arm Hang (p?=?0.018). The training groups reduced their climbing sessions during the intervention compared to the CON group (p?=?0.057–0.074). In conclusion, HR-FR and LR-HR training programmes demonstrated an 11% and 12% non-significant improvement in climbing performance despite a 50% reduction in climbing sessions, but improved the results in strength and climbing-specific tests. None of the training intensities was superior compared to the others.     

Techniques and considerations for determining isoinertial upper‐body power

Power is an integral aspect of many sports. Although power output of the lower body is often measured during jumping and cycling movements, much less is known about power as pertains to the upper body musculature. Recently, isoinertial methods ‐ with constant gravitational load ‐ of power testing have become common, but little is known of the reliability and criterion validity of these tests as they pertain to sport performance. In addition, the varied methodology makes a lucid model more evasive. The aims of this review are to examine the various methods of assessing upper body power, to establish its role in predicting athletic performance, and to assess the body of literature that has assessed power output of the upper extremities by isoinertial methods. To our knowledge, only two studies on isoinertial upper‐body power have shown a direct correlation to sporting ability (Baker, 2001; Baker et al., 2001); therefore, many unanswered questions exist as to the efficacy of these tests as predictors of athletic ability or as a method to track athletes’ training over time. From this review we hope to allow the sport coach to assess the overall utility of these tests in terms of availability, safety and external validity.     

Biomechanical validation of a specific upper body training and testing drill in cross‐country skiing

The aim of this study was to perform a biomechanical validation of a double poling imitation drill on a rollerboard. Six elite cross‐country skiers performed three imitation drill trials at maximal speed at 13° inclination and in double poling on roller skis on a paved road of 3°. Pole and strap forces, elbow and hip angles and EMG activity of eight upper body muscles were measured. Force curves showed similar characteristics, except for impact force occurring only at pole plant in double poling on roller skis. Double poling on a rollerboard includes an eccentric roll‐down phase not appearing in double polling on roller skis. Forces on the rollerboard were similar to those on roller skis. Courses of the elbow angles indicated similar shapes, except for the angle at the start of the propulsion phase and, consequently, during flexion (p < 0.01). Propulsion time and cycle duration were longer and frequency lower on the rollerboard (all p < 0.001). Muscle activities were not significantly different, except for stronger biceps brachii (p < 0.01) and weaker erector spinae activation (p < 0.05) on the rollerboard. Muscle coordination patterns showed similar onset and offset points of each muscle and comparable activations in both activities, except for biceps brachii. Two movement strategies on the rollerboard were found, which led to small differences in measured variables. The biomechanical validity of double poling on a rollerboard can be judged as moderately high, being aware of the differences in some variables that might be considered in training sessions on the rollerboard, particularly when using intervals with high number of repetitions.     

Effects of small-volume soccer and vibration training on body composition,aerobic fitness,and muscular PCr kinetics for inactive women aged 20–45

PurposeThe present study investigated the effects of 16 weeks of small-volume, small-sided soccer training soccer group (SG, n = 13) and oscillating whole-body vibration training vibration group (VG, n = 17) on body composition, aerobic fitness, and muscle PCr kinetics in healthy inactive premenopausal women in comparison with an inactive control group (CO, n = 14).MethodsTraining for SG and VG consisted of twice-weekly 15-min sessions with average heart rates (HRs) of ∼155 and 90 bpm respectively. Pre- and post-measurements of body composition (DXA), phosphocreatine (PCr) on- and off-kinetics, and HR measurements during standardised submaximal exercise were performed.ResultsAfter 16 weeks of training in SG, fat percentage was lowered (p = 0.03) by 1.7% ± 2.4% from 37.5% ± 6.9% to 35.8% ± 6.2% and the PCr decrease in the quadriceps during knee-extension ramp exercise was attenuated (4% ± 8%, p = 0.04), with no changes in VG or CO (time-group effect: p = 0.03 and p = 0.03). Submaximal exercise HR was also reduced in SG after 16 weeks of training (6% ± 5% of HR_max, p = 0.01).ConclusionShort duration soccer training for 16 weeks appears to be sufficient to induce favourable changes in body composition and indicators of aerobic fitness and muscle oxidative capacity in untrained premenopausal women.     

The reliability of isoinertial force–velocity–power profiling and maximal strength assessment in youth

The purpose of this study was to quantify the inter-session reliability of force–velocity–power profiling and estimated maximal strength in youth. Thirty-six males (11–15 years old) performed a ballistic supine leg press test at five randomized loads (80%, 100%, 120%, 140%, and 160% body mass) on three separate occasions. Peak and mean force, power, velocity, and peak displacement were collected with a linear position transducer attached to the weight stack. Mean values at each load were used to calculate different regression lines and estimate maximal strength, force, velocity, and power. All variables were found reliable (change in the mean [CIM] = ? 1 to 14%; coefficient of variation [CV] = 3–18%; intraclass correlation coefficient [ICC] = 0.74–0.99), but were likely to benefit from a familiarization, apart from the unreliable maximal force/velocity ratio (CIM = 0–3%; CV = 23–25%; ICC = 0.35–0.54) and load at maximal power (CIM = ? 1 to 2%; CV = 10–13%; ICC = 0.26–0.61). Isoinertial force–velocity–power profiling and maximal strength in youth can be assessed after a familiarization session. Such profiling may provide valuable insight into neuromuscular capabilities during growth and maturation and may be used to monitor specific training adaptations.     

The effect of training on aerobic power characteristics of young cross‐country skiers

The influences of growth, training and various training methods were investigated by analysing long‐term training effects in young cross‐country and biathlon skiers (n = 129). Some athletes (n = 49) were studied six times in three years and some at least once a year during a four year period (n = 48). During three summer training periods skiers emphasized either intensive training or distance training or continued to train normally. The results indicated that maximal oxygen uptake (VO₂ max) and heart volume increased between 15 and 20 years of age and the most significant changes in heart volume were observed between 16 and 18 years of age. International level skiers were able to increase their VO₂ max and heart volume even after 20 years of age. Anaerobic threshold (AT, ml kg^‐1 min^‐1) increased like VO₂ max but when expressed as a percentage of VO₂ max, the AT was similar in every age group over 16 years of age. Intensive training at the intensity of anaerobic threshold or higher was observed to be most effective in producing improvements in VO₂ max. Low‐intensity distance training was more effective in producing improvements in anaerobic threshold.     

The acute effects of resistance exercise on affect,anxiety, and mood – practical implications for designing resistance training programs

ABSTRACT

Research in aerobic exercise has linked the affective responses (pleasure–displeasure) experienced during exercise to future exercise participation. While this is yet to be confirmed in anaerobic activities, it can be inferred that making resistance exercise (RE) more psychologically rewarding is an important consideration. The purpose of this article is to review the acute effects of RE on affect, anxiety, and mood and to draw conclusions on how to maximize feelings of pleasure in an effort to increase rates of participation. This review provides evidence to support lower training volumes performed at low to moderate intensities (50–70% 1RM) with long inter-set rest intervals (90–150 s). Additional recommendations are provided based on physiological and theoretical support, but there is a strong need for more research on the affective experience of RE.     

Effects of rule changes on physical demands and shot characteristics of elite-standard men’s squash and implications for training

The physical demands and rally characteristics of elite-standard men’s squash have not been well documented since recent rule changes (scoring and tin height). This information is needed to design optimal training drills for physical conditioning provided here based on an analysis of movement and shot information. Matches at the 2010 (n = 14) and 2011 (n = 27) Rowe British Grand Prix were analysed. Rallies were split into four ball-in-play duration categories using the 25th (short), 75th (medium), 95th percentiles (long) and maximum values. Cohen’s d and chi-squared tests of independence evaluated effects of rally and rule changes on patterns of play. The proportion of long, middle and short shots was related to the duration of the rally with more shots played in the middle and front of the court in short rallies (phi = 0.12). The frequencies of shots played from different areas of the court have not changed after the adoption of new rules but there is less time available to return shots that reflect the attacking nature of match play for elite-standard men players. Aspiring and current elite-standard players need to condition themselves to improve their ability to cope with these demands using the ghosting patterns presented that mimic demands of modern match play.     

Effects of stress inoculation training on self‐report,behavioural and psychophysiological reactions to abseiling

The study examined the effect of stress inoculation training on the level of self‐reported stress and anxiety, overt signs of distress and the physiological impact of the stress of abseiling. Twenty volunteer subjects were randomly assigned to either a ‘no training’ control group or a stress inoculation training group, following which both groups of subjects had to complete a test abseil from the roof of a 21.2 m building. Prior to descent, two self‐report measures were taken: an intensity score derived from the word or phrase chosen by subjects from the Perceived Stress Index to best describe their feelings and a state anxiety score from Spielberger's State Trait Anxiety Inventory. Overt distress was also evaluated by a ‘blind’ observer also using the Perceived Stress Index. In addition, heart rate was monitored just prior to and throughout the abseil using a telemetry system. The stress inoculation group showed significantly less self‐reported anxiety and stress and less behavioural signs of distress as judged by the observer. However, there were no significant differences between the groups in terms of heart rate. In addition, while self‐report and the assessment of the observer were highly inter‐correlated, these measures were poorly correlated with heart rate.     

Effects of a physical education-based coping training on adolescents’ coping skills,stress perceptions and quality of sleep

Background: Although most adolescents successfully manage the transition between childhood and adulthood, the speed and magnitude of these changes may exceed the coping abilities of a significant number of young people. For vocational students, additional responsibilities arise during the vocational school transition and the need to balance academic and job-related requirements. An expanding body of literature suggests that adolescence is a vulnerable period for the development of psychiatric diseases and as such, the need to develop an adequate coping repertoire is receiving increasing attention globally. The growing awareness of long-term consequences of stress has led governments to instill school-based resilience promotion programs. For instance, the new physical education (PE) curriculum of vocational (vocational education and training (VET)) students in Switzerland addresses stress management, because stress-related diseases at the workplace have become commonplace among young professionals.

Purpose: Our aim was to develop, implement and evaluate a PE-based coping training (EPHECT) for VET students. Therefore, we adapted components of extant field-tested coping training programs and tailored them to the unique needs of VET students. To facilitate the standardization of the program, each teacher received a teaching manual. Moreover, drawing upon experiential learning theory, we introduced the contents of the coping training in PE class through practical, movement-based exercises in PE. Students also received a workbook for use at home.

Participants and research design: In this cluster randomized controlled trial, eight classes from a Swiss vocational school participated (N?=?131, M_age?=?16.22?±?1.12, 35% females). Two trained PE teachers implemented the program with students in the intervention group (IG?=?67) for three months, while students in the other four classes maintained regular PE (CG?=?64) to comprise the control group. To evaluate the coping training, all participants completed several self-report psychological questionnaires (assessing stress, coping and sleep) at baseline and follow-up. IG students completed further questions with regard to intervention fidelity at follow-up.

Data analysis: To evaluate possible effects of the coping training on stress, coping and sleep, a 2?×?2 repeated-measures analysis of variance design was executed with time (pre vs. post) and group (IG vs. CG) as within- and between-subject factors.

Findings: Over time, IG students significantly increased their adaptive coping compared to CG students, while stress and sleep remained relatively stable for both. Regularly completing one’s homework reinforced this effect because it was significantly associated with students’ reflection and compliance.

Conclusion: A complete and accurate implementation of a PE-based coping training can make a positive contribution to the development of adaptive coping skills among adolescents attending vocational schools. This PE-based program allows students to experience their responses to stress directly and offers opportunities to experiment with different coping strategies. Adaptive coping skills are vital for successful stress management and the prevention of stress-related disorders across the work domain and in everyday life.     

Hand–arm strength and endurance as predictors of climbing performance

Abstract

The aims of this study were to examine training characteristics, body composition, muscular strength, and endurance in sport climbers, and to demonstrate the relationship among these components by means of structural equation modelling. Altogether, 205 sport climbers (136 males, 69 females), with a performance RP (red point) of grade 4 to 11 on the Union Internationale des Association d'Alpinisme (UIAA) scale, took part in the study. The proposed structural model, with latent variable hand–arm strength and endurance (developed from reference values for simple tests), indicated by three manifest variables (grip strength, bent-arm hang, and finger hang) and three exogenous variables (body fat, volume of climbing, and climbing experience), explained 97% of the variance in climbing performance. The relationship between body fat and climbing experience/volume with climbing performance was not direct, but was better explained using the mediator hand–arm strength and endurance. We conclude that these simple tests, together with percent body fat, volume of climbing, and climbing experience, can satisfactorily predict climbing performance.     

Effects of 12 weeks of combined training without caloric restriction on inflammatory markers in overweight girls

The objective of the present study was to investigate the effects of combined training without caloric restriction on inflammatory markers in overweight girls. Thirty-three girls (13–17 years) were assigned into overweight training (n = 17) or overweight control (n = 16) groups. Additionally, a normal-weight group (n = 15) was used as control for the baseline values. The combined training programme consisted of six resistance exercises (three sets of 6–10 repetitions at 60–70% 1 RM) followed by 30 min of aerobic exercise (walking/running) at 50–80% VO_2peak, performed in the same 60 min session, 3 days/weeks, for 12 weeks. Body composition, dietary intake, aerobic fitness (VO_2peak), muscular strength (1 RM), glycaemia, insulinemia, lipid profile and inflammatory markers (C-reactive protein, interleukin-6, tumour necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-10, leptin, resistin and adiponectin) were measured before and after intervention. There was a significant decrease in body fat (P < 0.01) and increase in fat-free mass (P < 0.01), VO_2peak (P < 0.01), 1 RM for leg press (P < 0.01) and bench press (P < 0.01) in the overweight training group. Concomitantly, this group presented significant decreases in serum concentrations of C-reactive protein (P < 0.05) and leptin (P < 0.05), as well as in insulin resistance (P < 0.05) after the experimental period. In conclusion, 12 weeks of combined training without caloric restriction reduced inflammatory markers associated with obesity in overweight girls.     

The effect of football boot upper padding on dribbling and passing performance using a test–retest validated protocol

Touch/control football boots are reportedly designed for optimal passing and dribbling. Little research exists on the effect of boot design on touch/control performance and no validated protocol has been developed for assessing passing and dribbling from an equipment focus. This study aimed to assess the effect of upper padding on dribbling and passing performance using a test–retest reliable test setup. Eight university players performed a protocol of dribbling, short and long passing in football boots with 0 and 6 mm of upper padding (Poron foam). The protocol was completed twice; the 0-mm padding results were used for test–retest validation, while the 0-mm versus 6-mm padding results were used to investigate the effect of padding. Dribbling performance was assessed though completion time, number of touches applied and lateral deviation from cones and passing performance through ball velocity and offset from target. The protocol demonstrated good test–retest reliability and indicated no significant differences in any of the 12 performance variables between the 0- and 6-mm padded boots. These findings suggest an element of design freedom in the use of padding within football boot uppers without affecting dribbling or passing performance.     

Muscle capacity and physical function in older women: What are the impacts of resistance training?

The number of older adults (individuals ≥65 years), particularly women, in our society is increasing and understanding the impact of exercise on muscle capacity (e.g., strength and power) and subsequently physical function is of utmost importance to prevent disability and maintain independence. Muscle capacity declines with age and this change negatively impacts physical function in older women. Exercise, specifically resistance training, is recommended to counteract these declines; however, the synergistic relationships between exercise, muscle capacity, and physical function are poorly understood. This review will summarize the literature regarding age-related changes in the aforementioned variables and review the research on the impact of resistance training interventions on muscle capacity and physical function in older women. Recommendations for future research in this area will be discussed.     

Effects of modelling and observer's ego involvement on warm‐up decrement

Warm‐up decrement (WUD), a phenomenon associated with motor behaviour, is the temporary decrement that occurs when performance resumes after a period of inactivity. The purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which observing a model while concerned about one's own subsequent performance (e.g. a substitute about to enter the sport contest) influences WUD. The subjects were randomly assigned to one of four conditions: (1) observing an ego‐involved model demonstrate the criterion skill, (2) observing a model while not ego‐involved, (3) ego involvement without modelling and (4) resting (control). Performance outcome (accuracy) and arousal (cognitive and somatic) were assessed. The results of the study indicated that only the combined ego involvement plus modelling condition eliminated WUD. Positive rather than negative emotions and heart rate increased significantly for these subjects after rest. In contrast, the other conditions each exhibited WUD. Heart rate was significantly higher in the ‘model and ego’ and ‘ego only’ groups as opposed to ‘modelling only’ and rest. Implications for using cognitive strategies while observing competitors just prior to entering the contest on reducing WUD are discussed.     

Effects of viscoelastic properties of tendon structures on stretch – shortening cycle exercise in vivo

The aim of the present study was to examine the effects of viscoelastic properties of human tendon structures during stretch?–?shortening cycle exercise. The elongation of tendon and aponeurosis of the medial gastrocnemius muscle of 26 participants was measured by ultrasonography while they performed ramp isometric plantar flexion up to the voluntary maximum, followed by a ramp relaxation. The relationship between estimated muscle force and tendon elongation during the ascending phase was fitted to a linear regression, the slope of which was defined as stiffness. The percentage of the area within the muscle force?–?tendon elongation loop relative to the area beneath the curve during the ascending phase was defined as hysteresis. In addition, maximal voluntary concentric contractions at 2.09 and 3.14 rad?·?s^?1 with and without prior eccentric contractions were performed. The difference in the concentric torque at equivalent joint angles with and without prior eccentric contractions (i.e. pre-stretch augmentation) was negatively correlated with stiffness (P <?0.05) and hysteresis (P <?0.05). Furthermore, there was a higher correlation between the pre-stretch augmentation and the viscoelastic properties index – that is, the sum of normalized score values of stiffness and hysteresis (P <?0.01) – than with either stiffness or hysteresis alone. The results of this study suggest that performance during stretch?–?shortening cycle exercise is significantly affected by the viscoelastic properties of the tendon structures.     

Dialogue: Comment on “Effects of Grip and Forearm Position on Flexed-Arm Hang Performance”

Abstract

The majority of physical activity initiatives have been directed toward promoting cardiorespiratory fitness and general health. Far less attention has been devoted to encouraging or understanding muscular fitness-promoting behaviors. The purpose of this study was to determine if constructs from the Transtheoretical Model, a contemporary behavior change framework, could be adapted and applied to the study of muscular fitness-promoting behaviors. Participants were 429 college students who completed measures of stage of change, the behavioral and cognitive processes of change, and self-efficacy. All measures were modified to relate specifically to muscular fitness-promoting behaviors. Two direct discriminant function analyses were performed, revealing that the behavioral processes of change and self-efficacy were the major correlates of the stages of change for muscular fitness-promoting behaviors.     

Effects of the golfer–ground interaction on clubhead speed in skilled male golfers

The purposes of this study were to characterise the golfer–ground interactions during the swing and to identify meaningful associations between the golfer–ground interaction force/moment parameters and the maximum clubhead speed in 63 highly skilled male golfers (handicap ≤ 3). Golfers performed shots in 3 club conditions (driver, 5-iron and pitching wedge) which were captured by an optical motion capture system and 2 force plates. In addition to the ground reaction forces (GRFs), 3 different golfer–ground interaction moments (GRF moments, pivoting moments and foot contact moments) were computed. The GRF moment about the forward/backward (F/B) axis and the pivoting moment about the vertical axis were identified as the primary moments. Significant (p < 0.05) correlations of peak force parameters (all components in the lead foot and F/B component in the trail foot) and peak moment parameters (lead-foot GRF moment and trail-foot pivoting moment) to clubhead speed were found. The lead-foot was responsible for generating the GRF moment, while the trail foot contributed to the pivoting moment more. The instant the lead arm becomes parallel to the ground was identified as the point of maximum angular effort, and the loading onto the lead-foot near this point was critical in generating both peak moments.