Evaluating the evidence for implicit perceptual learning: a re-analysis of Farrow and Abernethy (2002)

I present a re-analysis of the data from Farrow and Abernethy's (2002) study of implicit perceptual training in tennis. I argue that there are several weaknesses and mistakes in the original analysis, which, when rectified, lead to a fundamentally different set of conclusions to those given in the original paper. Specifically, there are significant group differences in anticipatory performance before the intervention that make subsequent between-group comparisons at specific occlusion points problematic. Second, in contrast to what is reported in the original paper, the explicit learning intervention resulted in a significant improvement in performance. In addition, a comparison of the effects of the different interventions indicates that the placebo group demonstrated the largest mean improvement in anticipation for the four occlusion points up to racquet-ball impact. Third, the non-significant change in performance over a 32-day retention period indicates that any improvements in performance were retained, not lost, over this period of time. Following a re-analysis of the original data, I conclude that Farrow and Abernethy's study provides no evidence that an implicit perceptual training paradigm improves anticipatory performance more than either an explicit learning paradigm or, indeed, an intervention involving mere observation of tennis matches.     

Cardiorespiratory,hormonal and haematological responses to submaximal cycling performed 2 days after eccentric or concentric exercise bouts

The aim of this experiment was to determine the effectiveness of two video-based perceptual training approaches designed to improve the anticipatory skills of junior tennis players. Players were assigned equally to an explicit learning group, an implicit learning group, a placebo group or a control group. A progressive temporal occlusion paradigm was used to examine, before and after training, the ability of the players to predict the direction of an opponent's service in an in-vivo on-court setting. The players responded either through hitting a return stroke or making a verbal prediction of stroke direction. Results revealed that the implicit learning group, whose training required them to predict serve speed direction while viewing temporally occluded video footage of the return-of-serve scenario, significantly improved their prediction accuracy after the training intervention. However, this training effect dissipated after a 32 day unfilled retention interval. The explicit learning group, who received instructions about the specific aspects of the pre-contact service kinematics that are informative with respect to service direction, did not demonstrate any significant performance improvements after the intervention. This, together with the absence of any significant improvements for the placebo and control groups, demonstrated that the improvement observed for the implicit learning group was not a consequence of either expectancy or familiarity effects.     

Analogy learning: A means to implicit motor learning

Two experiments were conducted to examine the hypothesis that learning by analogy will invoke characteristics of an implicit mode of motor learning. In the first experiment, table tennis novices learned to hit forehand topspin implicitly, explicitly or by analogy. The results showed that the analogy and implicit learning groups accumulated equivalently fewer explicit rules than the explicit learning group during the learning phase. When a concurrent secondary task was added, the explicit learning group suffered from a significantly more serious performance impairment than the analogy and implicit learning groups; no significant differences were seen between the latter two groups. Self-perceived performance was correlated to actual performance in the explicit learning group but not in the analogy or the implicit learning groups. In the second experiment, the performance of an explicit learning group was found to be impaired by both a stress intervention and a thought suppression intervention, whereas the performance of an analogy learning group was not. These characteristics of analogy learning parallel those reported in the implicit learning literature, suggesting that analogy learning may be an effective method for teaching skills implicitly in sport.     

Interaction between motor ability and skill learning in children: Application of implicit and explicit approaches

The benefits of implicit and explicit motor learning approaches in young adults have been studied extensively, but much less in children. This study investigated the relationship between fundamental motor ability and implicit/explicit learning in children using the errorless learning paradigm. First, the motor ability of 261 children (142 boys, 119 girls) aged 9–12 years (M?=?9.74, SD?=?0.67) was measured. Second, children with motor ability scores in the upper and lower quartile learned a golf-putting skill in either an errorless (implicit) or errorful (explicit) learning condition. Four groups were formed: Errorless High-Ability (n?=?13), Errorless Low-Ability (n?=?11), Errorful High-Ability (n?=?10), and Errorful Low-Ability (n?=?11). Learning consisted of 300 practice trials, while testing included a 50-trial retention test, followed by a 50-trial secondary task transfer test, and another 50-trial retention test. The results showed that for high- and low-ability errorless learners, motor performance was unaffected by the secondary task, as was the case for high-ability errorful learners. Low-ability errorful learners performed worse with a secondary task and were significantly poorer than the corresponding high-ability group. These results suggest that implicit motor learning (errorless) may be beneficial for children with low motor ability. The findings also show a trend that children of high motor ability might benefit from learning explicitly (errorful). Further research is recommended to examine the compatibility of implicit and explicit approaches for children of different abilities.     

番子拳的内容与分类的整理研究

本文对番子拳按基础、功力、技击、套路四部分进行分类整理，并就番子拳的训练进行研讨。     

Quiet eye training aids the long-term learning of throwing and catching in children: Preliminary evidence for a predictive control strategy

Abstract

Quiet eye training (QET) may be a more effective method for teaching children to catch than traditional training (TT) methods, but it is unclear if the benefits accrued persist in the long term. Thirty children were randomly allocated into a QET or TT group and, while wearing a mobile eye tracker, underwent baseline testing, training and two retention tests over a period of eight weeks, using a validated throw and catch task. During training, movement-related information was provided to both groups, while the QET group received additional instruction to increase the duration of their targeting fixation (QE1) on the wall prior to the throw, and pursuit tracking (QE2) period on the ball prior to catching. In both immediate (R1) and delayed (R2, six weeks later) retention tests, the QET group had a significantly longer QE1 duration and an earlier and longer QE2 duration, compared to the TT group, who revealed no improvements. A performance advantage was also found for the QET compared to the TT group at both R1 and R2, revealing the relatively robust nature of the visuomotor alterations. Regression analyses suggested that only the duration of QE1 predicted variance in catch success post-training, pointing to the importance of a pre-programming visuomotor strategy for successful throw and catch performance.     

初探培养学生执行《体育(与健康)课程标准》的能力

研究与新课程标准相适应的教学模式,教学手段和更新教学方法,做到学术性与师范性相结合,重视学生能力的培养,优化教学内容,优选教学组织形式,强调运动体验,体现运动技能的领域目标,让大部分学生掌握职业训练"双重目标"的各项技能动作,学会科学锻炼身体的方法,是本文的研究方向,并进行了一年的实验教学。     

Schema theory: critical review and implications for the role of cognition in a new theory of motor learning

This paper is based on a symposium celebrating the 26th anniversary of the publication of "A Schema Theory of Discrete Motor Skill Learning" (Schmidt, 1975) held at the annual conference of the North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity in June 2001. We provide a brief historical context for schema theory and a review of the development of the mechanistic approach to motor learning in general. We explore recent findings in mental practice, observational learning, augmented feedback presentation, and the variability of practice that are inconsistent with schema theory and provide a rationale for the importance of cognitive activity in motor learning.     

The influence of implicit cognitive processes on physical activity: how the theory of planned behaviour and self-determination theory can provide a platform for our understanding

The influence of implicit cognitive processes on social behaviour has been heavily scrutinised in recent years. A burgeoning body of literature now indicates that implicit processes are particularly predictive of those behaviours that are spontaneously performed and difficult to control. Although interest in implicit cognition has been strong in many fields, few studies have investigated the role of implicit cognitive processes on physical activity. In this article we highlight the avenues through which implicit processes might influence different forms of activity. Two of the most prominent theories in sport and exercise psychology – the theory of planned behaviour and self-determination theory – are used as templates through which discussion is focused. Studies on implicit processes that have utilised these theories are reviewed and critiqued, and the implications of findings from these studies on the prediction of physical activity are discussed. The final section includes a discussion of recent theorising on the mechanisms through which implicit cognitive processes might change. It is hoped that discussion of these important issues will stimulate research into the role of implicit cognitive processes in physical activity.     

Predicting objectively assessed physical activity from the content and regulation of exercise goals: evidence for a mediational model

Grounded in self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000), the purpose of this work was to examine effects of the content and motivation of adults' exercise goals on objectively assessed moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). After reporting the content and motivation of their exercise goals, 101 adult participants (Mage = 38.79 years; SD = 11.5) wore an ActiGraph (GT1M) accelerometer for seven days. Accelerometer data were analyzed to provide estimates of engagement in MVPA and bouts of physical activity. Goal content did not directly predict behavioral engagement; however, mediation analysis revealed that goal content predicted behavior via autonomous exercise motivation. Specifically, intrinsic versus extrinsic goals for exercise had a positive indirect effect on average daily MVPA, average daily MVPA accumulated in 10-min bouts and the number of days on which participants performed 30 or more minutes of MVPA through autonomous motivation. These results support a motivational sequence in which intrinsic versus extrinsic exercise goals influence physical activity behavior because such goals are associated with more autonomous forms of exercise motivation.     

Observation interventions for motor skill learning and performance: an applied model for the use of observation

Using the 5 Ws and 1 H journalistic approach of Beveridge Mackie (2011), we reviewed the observation intervention research that targeted sport skills or daily movement tasks. Through this review, it became apparent that while there is much research that examines observation of a live or video (what), skilled model (who) for enhanced skill learning (why) in laboratory settings (where), there is a need for not only a wider scope of research, but also a deeper one. Following the review of literature, an applied model for the use of observation is advanced. Through this applied model, we propose that practitioners should first assess the observer's characteristics and the task characteristics for which any observation intervention is being created. The practitioner should then gain an understanding of the context and the desired outcomes of the learner and use this advance information to vary the characteristics of: (1) who is observed; (2) what is observed and what instructional features will accompany the intervention; (3) when it is observed; and (4) how the observed information should be delivered. Future research directions are also forwarded with regard to identified gaps in the literature.     

Music in the exercise domain: a review and synthesis (Part II)

Since a 1997 review by Karageorghis and Terry, which highlighted the state of knowledge and methodological weaknesses, the number of studies investigating musical reactivity in relation to exercise has swelled considerably. In this two-part review paper, the development of conceptual approaches and mechanisms underlying the effects of music are explicated (Part I), followed by a critical review and synthesis of empirical work (spread over Parts I and II). Pre-task music has been shown to optimise arousal, facilitate task-relevant imagery and improve performance in simple motoric tasks. During repetitive, endurance-type activities, self-selected, motivational and stimulative music has been shown to enhance affect, reduce ratings of perceived exertion, improve energy efficiency and lead to increased work output. There is evidence to suggest that carefully selected music can promote ergogenic and psychological benefits during high-intensity exercise, although it appears to be ineffective in reducing perceptions of exertion beyond the anaerobic threshold. The effects of music appear to be at their most potent when it is used to accompany self-paced exercise or in externally valid conditions. When selected according to its motivational qualities, the positive impact of music on both psychological state and performance is magnified. Guidelines are provided for future research and exercise practitioners.     

Music in the exercise domain: a review and synthesis (Part I)

Since a 1997 review by Karageorghis and Terry, which highlighted the state of knowledge and methodological weaknesses, the number of studies investigating musical reactivity in relation to exercise has swelled considerably. In this two-part review paper, the development of conceptual approaches and mechanisms underlying the effects of music are explicated (Part I), followed by a critical review and synthesis of empirical work (spread over Parts I and II). Pre-task music has been shown to optimise arousal, facilitate task-relevant imagery and improve performance in simple motoric tasks. During repetitive, endurance-type activities, self-selected, motivational and stimulative music has been shown to enhance affect, reduce ratings of perceived exertion, improve energy efficiency and lead to increased work output. There is evidence to suggest that carefully selected music can promote ergogenic and psychological benefits during high-intensity exercise, although it appears to be ineffective in reducing perceptions of exertion beyond the anaerobic threshold. The effects of music appear to be at their most potent when it is used to accompany self-paced exercise or in externally valid conditions. When selected according to its motivational qualities, the positive impact of music on both psychological state and performance is magnified. Guidelines are provided for future research and exercise practitioners.     

Gaze pursuit and arm control of adolescent males diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and normal controls: evidence of a dissociation in processing visual information of short and long duration

Three-dimensional kinematic analysis of line of gaze, arm and ball was used to describe the visual and motor behaviour of male adolescents diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The ADHD participants were tested when both on (ADHD-On) and off (ADHD-Off) their medication and compared to age-matched normal controls in a modified table tennis task that required tracking the ball and hitting to cued right and left targets. Long-duration information was provided by a pre-cue, in which the target was illuminated approximately 2 s before the serve, and short-duration information by an early-cue illuminated about 350 ms after the serve, leaving approximately 500 ms to select the target and perform the action. The ADHD groups differed significantly from the control group in both the pre-cue and early-cue conditions in being less accurate, in having a later onset and duration of pursuit tracking, and a higher frequency of gaze on and off the ball. The use of medication significantly reduced the gaze frequency of the ADHD participants, but surprisingly this did not lead to an increase in pursuit tracking, suggesting a barrier was reached beyond which ball flight information could not be processed. The control and ADHD groups did not differ in arm movement onset, duration and velocity in the short-duration early-cue condition; in the long-duration pre-cue condition, however, the ADHD group's movement time onset and arm velocity differed significantly from controls. The results show that the ADHD groups were able to process short-duration information without experiencing adverse effects on their motor behaviour; however, long-duration information contributed to irregular movement control.     

湖北大学公共体育课程“课内外一体化”教学模式的构建与实践

依据<全国普通高等学校体育课程教学指导纲要>的精神,湖北大学在"以人为本"的体育课程观指导下,以"健康第一"、"终身体育"为出发点,在对本校学生特点、场地器材、师资条件、校园文化等深入调研的前提下,从课程指导思想、课程目标、课程内容与学习评价等方面构建与实施了"课内外一体化"体育课程教学模式.经过5年多的试验和探讨,在多元质量观的指导下,采取"以课堂教学为中心,以课外体育锻炼、课余体育训练为拓展和延伸"的形式,以"取消基础课、普及选项课;淡化竞技教学内容,突出终身健身能力;增强学生体质和培养学生终身体育兴趣、习惯和能力"为总体改革目标,优化课程各要素,提高教学效率,注重"应用性、差异性、自主性"、"基本健身知识、基本休闲健身技能、基本终身健身能力"和"终身体育兴趣、终身体育习惯、终身体育能力"的落实,实现了体育课程目标.     

Developing the Coach Analysis and Intervention System (CAIS): establishing validity and reliability of a computerised systematic observation instrument

We outline the evolution of a computerised systematic observation tool and describe the process for establishing the validity and reliability of this new instrument. The Coach Analysis and Interventions System (CAIS) has 23 primary behaviours related to physical behaviour, feedback/reinforcement, instruction, verbal/non-verbal, questioning and management. The instrument also analyses secondary coach behaviour related to performance states, recipient, timing, content and questioning/silence. The CAIS is a multi-dimensional and multi-level mechanism able to provide detailed and contextualised data about specific coaching behaviours occurring in complex and nuanced coaching interventions and environments that can be applied to both practice sessions and competition.     

福建师范大学 bridge 助残志愿服务队管理现状和对策初探

为使助残志愿组织更好的运作,有效的弥补国家政策所顾忌不到的地方,以福建师范大学bridge助残志愿服务队为调查对象,运用文献资料调研法、调查法以及数据统计法对bridge助残志愿服务队的志愿组织管理现状进行剖析,发现助残志愿服务队的组织管理存在管理架构、管理宗旨、管理资源及管理手段的不足。提出组织结构建设方案、相关骨干志愿者的培养与选拔策略及建立一套客观、多维度的评价体系等对策来完善和推进整个服务队的发展。     

从过程理论观点探索我国运动员的退役(Ⅱ)——社会支持与退役教育的构想

研究基于运动员退役的过程理论，运用文献综述、实地调查和综合分析等方法，对运动员退役安置的政策变化、退役的有关理论、社会支持，以及退役教育的可行性进行分析讨论。过去有关运动员的退役问题，政府主要是通过政策的倾斜来改善运动员的退役环境，很少从心理调节上去考虑。从社会心理学角度，调查分析运动员的退役心理状态，发现很多问题不容乐观，建议应关注运动员在退役过程中的心理问题，开展运动员退役心理干预教育，以改善运动员退役的心理环境。从退役过程理论的观点看，运动员的退役是一个阶段性发展的结果，心理过程在各个阶段中会直接影响到运动员对退役后的生活评价，引起情绪反应。为了减轻退役过程给运动员带来的负面影响，基于当前的运动员退役理论、社会支持和国外运动员退役教育，建议有关的研究应进一步探讨我国运动员退役服务的教育，开展对运动员退役的深层次问题的探索，为推进我国运动员的退役教育提供更多的理论依据。     

关于完善《体育(与健康)课程标准》的建议(上)——体育课程性质的表述和目标体系的讨论

课程目的不仅在于增进身体健康,而且还有传承体育文化,培养终生体育锻炼意识、能力与习惯;建立“课程目标——领域(或直接称为内容)目标——水平目标(或年级目标)——某水平的内容目标”的目标层次体系;取消“运动参与”的单列目标,将“积极主动参与体育课程学习和体育锻炼”等目标内容纳入其他目标中;将“心理健康”和“社会适应”的目标合并成为“促进心理健康与社会发展”的目标,取消“心理健康”和“社会适应”的目标,设“思想品德”或“品德与行为”目标。