Anthropometric and physiological predispositions for elite soccer

This review is focused on anthropometric and physiological characteristics of soccer players with a view to establishing their roles within talent detection, identification and development programmes. Top-class soccer players have to adapt to the physical demands of the game, which are multifactorial. Players may not need to have an extraordinary capacity within any of the areas of physical performance but must possess a reasonably high level within all areas. This explains why there are marked individual differences in anthropometric and physiological characteristics among top players. Various measurements have been used to evaluate specific aspects of the physical performance of both youth and adult soccer players. The positional role of a player is related to his or her physiological capacity. Thus, midfield players and full-backs have the highest maximal oxygen intakes ( > 60 ml x kg(-1) x min(-1)) and perform best in intermittent exercise tests. On the other hand, midfield players tend to have the lowest muscle strength. Although these distinctions are evident in adult and elite youth players, their existence must be interpreted circumspectly in talent identification and development programmes. A range of relevant anthropometric and physiological factors can be considered which are subject to strong genetic influences (e.g. stature and maximal oxygen intake) or are largely environmentally determined and susceptible to training effects. Consequently, fitness profiling can generate a useful database against which talented groups may be compared. No single method allows for a representative assessment of a player's physical capabilities for soccer. We conclude that anthropometric and physiological criteria do have a role as part of a holistic monitoring of talented young players.     

优秀男子举重运动员赛前训练的生理生化监控

目的：对国家男子举重队重点队员在2012中国举重锦标赛（奥运选拔赛）和奥运备战赛前的生理、生化指标进行监控,总结现有的赛前训练的模式,为教练员及时了解运动员的身体反应、修订训练计划和调整训练负荷、保证运动员在大赛前机能处于良好状态提供参考。方法：在国家男子举重队2012年奥运选拔赛和备战奥运的赛前期,运用生理、生化指标对国家队5个重点级别,6名运动员进行训练监控。结果：奥运选拔赛前的训练模式为赛前第2周训练强度和负荷达到最大,之后训练强度和量缓慢降低。奥运备战赛前的训练模式是大强度大负荷周与小强度小负荷周交替出现,总体呈下降趋势。选拔赛的赛前模式优于奥运备战的赛前训练模式。结论：两次赛前训练结果比较发现,锦标赛赛前训练模式优于奥运备战赛前训练;训练强度起始较大随后缓慢下降,整体训练负荷较稳定的训练可以保持运动员在赛前训练阶段的生理机能的稳定,同时提高运动员的肌肉爆发力,增强竞技状态;强度中等、训练负荷较大且整体训练量呈波动趋势的训练易于给运动员造成一定的身体不适,引起运动疲劳的积累,导致赛前竞技能力的降低。     

Self-regulation and performance level of elite and non-elite youth soccer players

Abstract

In learning and development, self-regulation can be described as the extent to which individuals are metacognitively, motivationally, and behaviourally proactive participants in their learning process (Zimmerman, 1989 Zimmerman, B. J. 1989. A social cognitive view of self-regulated academic learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81: 329–339. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], 2006 Zimmerman, B. J. 2006. “Development and adaptation of expertise: The role of self-regulatory processes and beliefs”. In The Cambridge handbook of expertise and expert performance, Edited by: Ericsson, K. A., Charness, N., Feltovich, P. J. and Hoffman, R. R. 705–722. New York: Cambridge University Press. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]). We examined the relationship between self-regulation and performance level in elite (n = 159) and non-elite (n = 285) youth soccer players aged 11–17 years (mean 14.5 years, s = 1.4). The players completed a questionnaire that assessed planning, self-monitoring, evaluation, reflection, effort, and self-efficacy. A logistic regression analysis was performed (controlling for age) to determine which self-regulatory aspects were associated with players' performance level (elite vs. non-elite). High scores on reflection and effort were associated with a higher level of performance. Findings suggest that elite players may be more aware of their strong and weak points as well as better able to translate this awareness into action. In addition, elite players appear to be more willing to invest effort into practice and competition. It is suggested that these better developed self-regulatory skills may translate into a more effective learning environment and ultimately result in an increased capacity for performance in elite players relative to their non-elite peers.     

Match-derived relative pitch area changes the physical and team tactical performance of elite soccer players in small-sided soccer games

Small-sided games (SSGs) are used in training sessions to prepare for full-sized matches. For the same number of players, smaller pitch sizes result in decreased physical performance and shorter interpersonal distances. A relative pitch area derived from the full-sized match results in larger pitch sizes and this may increase the fit between SSGs and full-sized matches. This study aimed to investigate SSGs with a traditional small pitch and a match-derived relative pitch area in youth elite soccer players. Four age categories (under-13, under-15, under-17 and under-19) played 4 vs. 4 plus goalkeepers on a small (40x30m, 120m² relative pitch area) and large pitch (68x47m, 320m² relative pitch area). The number of games per age category ranged 15–30. Positional data (LPM-system) were collected to determine physical (total distance covered, high intensity distance and number of sprints) and team tactical (inter-team distance, LPW-ratio, surface area, stretch indices, goalkeeper-defender distance) performance measures and tactical variability. On a large pitch, physical performance significantly increased, inter-team and intra-team distances were significantly larger and tactical variability of intra-team distance measures significantly increased. The match-derived relative pitch area is an important training manipulation and leads to changes in physical and tactical performance 4 vs. 4 plus goalkeepers.     

High-intensity efforts in elite soccer matches and associated movement patterns,technical skills and tactical actions. Information for position-specific training drills

ABSTRACT

This study aimed to translate movement patterns, technical skills and tactical actions associated with high-intensity efforts into metrics that could potentially be used to construct position-specific conditioning drills. A total of 20 individual English Premier League players’ high-intensity running profiles were observed multiple times (n = 100) using a computerised tracking system. Data were analysed using a novel high-intensity movement programme across five positions (centre back [CB], full-back [FB], central midfielder [CM], wide midfielder [WM] and centre forward [CF]). High-intensity efforts in contact with the ball and the average speed of efforts were greater in WMs than CBs, CMs and CFs (effect sizes [ES]: 0.9–2.1, P < 0.05). WMs produced more repeated efforts than CBs and CMs (ES: 0.6–1.3, P < 0.05). In possession, WMs executed more tricks post effort than CBs and CMs (ES: 1.2–1.3, P < 0.01). FBs and WMs performed more crosses post effort than other positions (ES: 1.1–2.0, P < 0.01). Out of possession, CFs completed more efforts closing down the opposition (ES: 1.4–5.0, P < 0.01) but less tracking opposition runners than other positions (ES: 1.5–1.8, P < 0.01). CFs performed more arc runs before efforts compared to CBs, FBs and WMs (ES: 0.9–1.4, P < 0.05), however, CBs completed more 0–90° turns compared to FBs, CMs and WMs (ES: 0.9–1.1, P < 0.01). The data demonstrate unique high-intensity trends in and out of possession that could assist practitioners when devising position-specific drills.     

有氧代谢能力与耐力项目训练中运动强度的选择

全面阐述了有氧代谢能力的概念，提出了最大摄氧量、无氧阈、最大摄氧量平台的持续时间都应是耐力训练的目标。在此基础上讨论了发展此3项目标应采用的训练强度。     

High-intensity endurance capacity assessment as a tool for talent identification in elite youth female soccer

ABSTRACT

Talent identification and development programmes have received broad attention in the last decades, yet evidence regarding the predictive utility of physical performance in female soccer players is limited. Using a retrospective design, we appraised the predictive value of performance-related measures in a sample of 228 youth female soccer players previously involved in residential Elite Performance Camps (age range: 12.7–15.3 years). With 10-m sprinting, 30-m sprinting, counter-movement jump height, and Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 1 (IR1) distance as primary predictor variables, the Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) assessed the relative quality of four penalised logistic regression models for determining future competitive international squads U17–U20 level selection. The model including Yo-Yo IR1 was the best for predicting career outcome. Predicted probabilities of future selection to the international squad increased with higher Yo-Yo IR1 distances, from 4.5% (95% confidence interval, 0.8 to 8.2%) for a distance lower than 440 m to 64.7% (95% confidence interval, 47.3 to 82.1%) for a score of 2040 m. The present study highlights the predictive utility of high-intensity endurance capacity for informing career progression in elite youth female soccer and provides reference values for staff involved in the talent development of elite youth female soccer players.     

The impact of elite labour migration on the identification,selection and development of European soccer players

In this study, we examined sociocultural aspects of the identification, selection and development of elite soccer players as part of wider processes of globalization, particularly worker migration. Patterns of migration were identified among the 704 players who comprised the national squads of the 32 nations contesting the finalsof the 1998 World Cup in France.An analysis of the migration patterns within and between the six Confederations into which member nations of FIFA are grouped established the European Federation (UEFA) as soccer's core economy. The study is subsequently focused on Europe and, in particular, upon the import strategies of clubs in the four most popular destination countries - England, Germany, Italy and Spain. It is argued that, in light of European Union deregulation of worker migration between member states and, in particular, the Bosman judgement, European soccer is being reshaped. The identification and selection of elite players are producing migrant patterns that are seen increasingly to impact upon indigenous player development and, potentially, the viability and success of national teams. We argue that, although these developments are contoured in part by global economic factors, economic accounts alone do not provide an adequate understanding of them. A series of interrelated economic, political, cultural and social factors is at work. We conclude with a brief outline of the policy implications of the analysis.     

山东省优秀散打运动员有氧能力的研究

目的：探讨山东省优秀散打运动员有氧能力的特点。方法：对山东省优秀散打运动员（实验组）（n=27,其中健将级运动员5人,国家一级运动员22人）以及对照组（n=19,均为二级运动员）的肺功能、心血管功能、最大吸氧量、血乳酸以及身体成分等指标进行比较分析。结果：1）实验组具有高的瘦体重和瘦体重/体脂（P〈0.05）。2）实验组的最大吸氧量无论是其绝对值还是相对值均显著高于对照组（P〈0.05）。3）实验组和对照组在安静状态下的血乳酸均无显著性差异;但定量负荷后即刻实验组表现出较低的血乳酸值,而对照组则表现出较高的血乳酸值（P〈0.05）。结论：优秀散打运动员具有较高的有氧能力。     

游泳运动员的最大摄氧量及其一些测试方法的研究进展

采用文献综述的方法介绍了游泳运动员最大摄氧量及其一些常见的测试方法,包括实验室和训练场地直接测试方法以及最大摄氧量的间接测定方法等。最后通过分析比较不同测试方法的优缺点,指出等动训练仪上进行模拟全身游泳的最大摄氧量测试和将来使用便携式气体代谢分析仪在水中进行正常游泳测试既符合游泳项目的专项特点,又涉及大的肌肉群,可能是简单实用并且准确的方法。     

Effect of a congested match schedule on immune-endocrine responses,technical performance and session-RPE in elite youth soccer players

ABSTRACT

This study investigated the effects of a congested match schedule (7 matches played in 7 days) on steroid hormone concentrations, mucosal immunity, session rating of perceived exertion (S-RPE) and technical performance in 16 elite youth soccer players (14.8 ± 0.4 years; 170.6 ± 9.4 cm; 64.9 ± 7 kg). No change was observed for salivary cortisol concentration across match time points (P = 0.33; effect size [ES] = 0.13–0.48). In contrast, there was a decrease in salivary testosterone and salivary IgA (SIgA) concentrations from the 1st compared with the last time point (P = 0.01 and 0.001, ES = 0.42 and 0.67, respectively). The SIgA concentration varied across time points (P < 0.001) with the highest value observed at the 3rd time point (rest day) (3rd vs all time point; ES = 0.47–0.73). No changes were observed for S-RPE across time points (P > 0.05). A higher number of tackles and interceptions were observed during the 4th match vs 1st and 7th matches (P < 0.001; ES = 2.25 and 1.90, respectively). The present data demonstrate that accumulated fatigue related to participation in a congested match schedule might induce a decrease in testosterone concentration in youth players and negatively affect their mucosal immunity and capacity to perform certain technical actions.     

Comparative efficacy of active recovery and cold water immersion as post-match recovery interventions in elite youth soccer

ABSTRACT

The current study compared cold-water immersion (CWI) and active recovery (AR) to static stretching (SS) on muscle recovery post-competitive soccer matches in elite youth players (n = 15). In a controlled crossover design, participants played a total of nine competitive soccer games, comprising three 80 minute games for each intervention (SS, CWI and AR). Muscle oedema, creatine kinase (CK), countermovement jump performance (CMJA) and perceived muscle soreness (PMS) were assessed pre-, immediately post-, and 48 hours post-match and compared across time-intervals and between interventions. Following SS, all markers of muscle damage remained significantly elevated (P < 0.05) compared to baseline at 48 hours post-match. Following AR and CWI, CMJA returned to baseline at 48 hours post-match, whilst CK returned to baseline following CWI at 48 hours post-match only. Analysis between recovery interventions revealed a significant improvement in PMS (P < 0.05) at 48 hours post-match when comparing AR and CWI to SS, with no significant differences between AR and CWI observed (P > 0.05). Analysis of %change for CK and CMJA revealed significant improvements for AR and CWI compared to SS. The present study indicated both AR and CWI are beneficial recovery interventions for elite young soccer players following competitive soccer matches, of which were superior to SS.     

Anthropometric,physiological and maturational characteristics in selected elite and non-elite male adolescent basketball players

Abstract

We investigated the anthropometric, physiological and maturation characteristics of young players (13–14 years old) associated with being successful in basketball. Body parameters were measured (stature, total body mass, skinfolds and lengths) and physiological capacities were assessed by endurance, sprint (20 m), jump and dribbling tests. Chronological age (CA) was recorded and maturity estimated using predicted age at peak height velocity (APHV). Anthropometric analysis indicated that elite players were taller, heavier and had a higher percentage of muscle. Further, physiological testing showed that these elite players perform better in jump, endurance, speed and agility tests (especially in the agility and ball tests). In addition, these skills are correlated with point average during the regular season. More basketball players born in the first semester of the year are selected and there is a predominance of early-maturing boys among those selected for the elite team. Those who are more mature have advantages in anthropometric characteristics and physiological test results. In conclusion, around puberty, physical and physiological parameters associated with maturity and CA are important in determining the success of basketball players. These findings should be taken into account by trainers and coaches, to avoid artificial bias in their selection choices.     

最大摄氧量测试中摄氧量曲线变化与皮划艇运动选材研究

分析3名少年皮划艇运动员选材所做最大摄氧量测试中出现的一些现象,发现摄氧量曲线呈现的"V"型与运动选材有密切的关系。     

Attacking and defensive styles of play in soccer: analysis of Spanish and English elite teams

ABSTRACT

The aim of this study was to define and categorise different styles of play in elite soccer and associated performance indicators by using factor analysis. Furthermore, the observed teams were categorised using all factor scores. Data were collected from 97 matches from the Spanish La Liga and the English Premier League from the seasons 2006–2007 and 2010–2011 using the Amisco® system. A total of 19 performance indicators, 14 describing aspects of attacking play and five describing aspects of defensive play, were included in the factor analysis. Six factors, representing 12 different styles of play (eight attacking and four defensive), had eigenvalues greater than 1 and explained 87.54% of the total variance. Direct and possession styles of play, defined by factor 1, were the most apparent styles. Factor analysis used the performance indicators to cluster each team’s style of play. Findings showed that a team’s style of play was defined by specific performance indicators and, consequently, teams can be classified to create a playing style profile. For practical implications, playing styles profiling can be used to compare different teams and prepare for opponents in competition. Moreover, teams could use specific training drills directed to improve their styles of play.     

浙江男足运动员最大摄氧量和恢复期乳酸代谢特征研究

以杭州绿城足球俱乐部中超队18名运动员为测试对象,通过测试递增负荷过程中运动员的最大摄氧量及恢复期血乳酸分析男子足球运动员有氧代谢特点,结果显示：浙江男足运动员和中国国家男足运动员在VO2max（L/min）方面有显著性差异,在相对VO2max（ml/kg/min）方面有高度显著性差异,而在VE、HR方面没有显著性差异。说明浙江男子足球运动员有氧能力低于国内优秀足球运动员（中国国家男子足球队）。     

跑节省化(RE)实验方法及其影响因素的研究进展

跑节省化（RE）是在给定一个特定跑速下的稳定摄氧量，它反映了机体外周对氧的利用效率，是与耐力运动成绩紧密相关的指标。早在20世纪八九十年代，国外就已经对RE进行了深入的研究，并认为其表达优秀耐力较之最大摄氧量有更大的贡献率。RE在国内只是近些年才逐渐引起学者们的注意。鉴于RE正逐渐成为运动生理学和运动训练学的一个研究热点，从跑节省化的测试方法、测试条件和影响因素等方面对国外的研究进行综述，为以后将RE运用到运动实践中以及理论研究提供参考。     

有氧耐力的测试指标和训练方法研究新进展

有氧耐力是人体从事耐力性运动的重要能力一,最大摄氧量是客观评价人体心肺功能的一项综合生理指标。本文对有氧耐力的重要测试指标最大摄氧量和无氧阈在有氧耐力评价中的作用及其影响因素进行了综合分析,并梳理了有氧耐力训练的新方法。耐力性项目的连动成绩与最大摄氧量关系紧密,而无氧阀在评定有氧耐力水平、制订有氧耐力训练强度等许多方面亦具有较强的指导意义。有氧耐力训练在很多项目训练中占有重要地位,掌握科学的有氧耐力训练方法对提高运动员的专项竞技水平起着关键性作用。     

6周浅水跑训练对有氧能力及1500 m跑成绩的影响研究

水中跑是水中有氧训练的主要方式,目前常见的形式包括深水跑、浅水跑和水中跑步机跑.通过对18名大学生运动员为期6周的浅水跑与陆上跑有氧训练比较研究,结果显示,浅水跑训练是一种低冲击有氧训练方式,与陆上跑动作具有高度特异性,可产生与陆上训练相媲美的心肺反应,改善运动员的有氧工作能力,维持其陆上跑成绩.对于运动员来说,水中跑有氧训练不是一种附加的训练刺激,而是以恢复或预防受伤为目的,既可避免过度训练或损伤带来的消极影响,也可作为日常训练的辅助/交叉训练,弥补陆上有氧训练的不足,为健康运动员及进行康复性训练的运动员提供更多的选择.     

《学生体质健康标准》中心血管功能评定指标的同质性和有效性的实验研究

为了分析《学生体质健康标准》中心血管功能评价指标的同质性和有效性，对87名普通大学生进行体质健康测试和最大耗氧量测试。研究结果表明，大学生的台阶测试得分和耐久跑成绩得分无显著差异；台阶测试得分与耐久跑之间无显著线性相关关系（r=-0．086，P〉0．05）；台阶测试和耐久跑指标之间无同质性；大学生最大耗氧量与台阶试验测试值和台阶试验得分无显著线性相关（r〈0．15，P〉0．05），大学生最大耗氧量与耐久跑成绩和得分之间也无显著线性相关。