Social validation: a motivational theory of doping in an online bodybuilding community

Abstract

Doping research has predominantly been framed through an ethical lens, implicitly restricted to the realms of elite sport. Despite increasing anecdotal evidence of growing prevalence rates amongst recreational athletes, such as bodybuilders, these populations have largely been neglected within psychological research. This study aims to develop a theoretical framework relevant to these athletes. Data were collected over a five-month period from an online community forum dedicated to recreational bodybuilders. Purposive sampling was used to gather 118 webpages of doping-related discussion, which were qualitatively analysed using grounded theory applying Strauss’s coding paradigm. Inductive categories were integrated into a motivational framework that related recreational doping to social validation. Categories included the online community’s rite of passage, normative-inferences that facilitated doping, and deterrence factors related to fear of perceived health risks. Findings demonstrate that, for recreational bodybuilders, psychosocial processes are significantly related to doping motives, and that health factors are primary doping deterrents.     

Examining social identity and intrateam moral behaviours in competitive youth ice hockey using stimulated recall

Social identity – identity formed through membership in groups – may play an important role in regulating intrateam moral behaviour in youth sport (Bruner, M. W., Boardley, I., & Côté, J. (2014). Social identity and prosocial and antisocial behavior in youth sport. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 15(1), 56–64. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2013.09.003). The aim of this study was to qualitatively examine this potential role through stimulated recall interviews with competitive youth-ice-hockey players. Twenty-three players (M_age = 13.27 years, SD = 1.79) who reported engaging in high, median or low frequency of antisocial teammate behaviour (determined through pre-screening with the Prosocial and Antisocial Behaviour in Sport Scale [Kavussanu, M., & Boardley, I. D. (2009). The prosocial and antisocial behavior in sport scale. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 31(1), 97–117. doi:10.1123/jsep.31.1.97]) were recruited from eight youth-ice-hockey teams in Canada. Interviews involved participants recalling their thoughts during prosocial/antisocial interactions with teammates, prompted by previously recorded video sequences of such incidents. Thematic analysis of interview data revealed all athletes – regardless of reported frequency of intrateam antisocial behaviour – felt prosocial interactions with teammates enhanced social identity. In contrast, the perceived influence of antisocial teammate behaviour on social identity differed depending on athletes’ reported frequency of intrateam antisocial behaviour; those reporting low and median frequencies described how such behaviour undermines social identity, whereas athletes reporting high frequency did not perceive this effect. The study findings highlight the potential importance of intrateam moral behaviour and social identity for youth-sport team functioning.     

The role of self-regulatory efficacy,moral disengagement and guilt on doping likelihood: A social cognitive theory perspective

Given the concern over doping in sport, researchers have begun to explore the role played by self-regulatory processes in the decision whether to use banned performance-enhancing substances. Grounded on Bandura’s (1991) theory of moral thought and action, this study examined the role of self-regulatory efficacy, moral disengagement and anticipated guilt on the likelihood to use a banned substance among college athletes. Doping self-regulatory efficacy was associated with doping likelihood both directly (b = ?.16, P < .001) and indirectly (b = ?.29, P < .001) through doping moral disengagement. Moral disengagement also contributed directly to higher doping likelihood and lower anticipated guilt about doping, which was associated with higher doping likelihood. Overall, the present findings provide evidence to support a model of doping based on Bandura’s social cognitive theory of moral thought and action, in which self-regulatory efficacy influences the likelihood to use banned performance-enhancing substances both directly and indirectly via moral disengagement.     

The final frontier of anti-doping: A study of athletes who have committed doping violations

Although the use of banned drugs in sport is not a new phenomenon, little is known about the experiences and perceptions of athletes who have committed anti-doping rule violations. This study qualitatively explored the experiences of 18 athletes (from the sports of bodybuilding, powerlifting, cricket, sprint kayak, rugby league, and swimming) who had committed anti-doping violations. Themes explored included motivations for initiating and maintaining doping, the psychology of doping, deterrents to doping, and views on current anti-doping policy. In most cases doping had started early in their careers. The perceived culture of the sport was considered central to the ‘normalization’ of doping, particularly in bodybuilding. When explaining their decision to dope, athletes engaged in processes or moral disengagement (including advantageous comparison, minimizing consequences and diffusion of responsibility). Ironically, moral arguments were perceived as the most effective deterrents to doping. Findings are discussed in relation to the difficulties in establishing credible deterrents and suggestions for the future development of anti-doping policy.     

冲击与净化：论兴奋剂与奥林匹克运动

兴奋剂一直以来是竞技体育最为头痛的问题,它的产生与泛滥与竞技体育自身的发展有着密切的关联。采用文献资料等研究方法,论述兴奋剂对奥林匹克精神、格言、《反兴公约》的冲击。并试图以奥林匹克给人类带来的美好信念;奥林匹克仪式的作用;奥林匹克优秀榜样的力量来教育运动员。旨在对净化竞技体育中兴奋剂弊病起到一些参考价值。     

Predicting elite Scottish athletes’ attitudes towards doping: examining the contribution of achievement goals and motivational climate

Understanding athletes’ attitudes to doping continues to be of interest for its potential to contribute to an international anti-doping system. However, little is known about the relationship between elite athletes’ attitudes to drug use and potential explanatory factors, including achievement goals and the motivational climate. In addition, despite specific World Anti-Doping Agency Code relating to team sport athletes, little is known about whether sport type (team or individual) is a risk or protective factor in relation to doping. Elite athletes from Scotland (N = 177) completed a survey examining attitudes to performance-enhancing drug (PED) use, achievement goal orientations and perceived motivational climate. Athletes were generally against doping for performance enhancement. Hierarchical regression analysis revealed that task and ego goals and mastery motivational climate were predictors of attitudes to PED use (F (4, 171) = 15.81, P < .01). Compared with individual athletes, team athletes were significantly lower in attitude to PED use and ego orientation scores and significantly higher in perceptions of a mastery motivational climate (Wilks’ lambda = .76, F = 10.89 (5, 170), P < .01). The study provides insight into how individual and situational factors may act as protective and risk factors in doping in sport.     

国际体育仲裁院兴奋剂仲裁机制评析

2019年1月1日，国际体育仲裁院新设立了兴奋剂仲裁部门，并正式开始运作。该机构是顺应世界体育领域反兴奋剂机制改革的产物，根据国际体育组织授权，其可以行使从兴奋剂违规认定到处罚的全部权力。国际体育仲裁理事会专门制定了《国际体育仲裁院反兴奋剂部门仲裁规则》，作为兴奋剂仲裁庭的程序规则，该规则考虑了兴奋剂纠纷的特点，设置了一些特殊仲裁制度，比如建立有专门的仲裁员名册，允许当事人选择仲裁庭类型，重视专家证人作用，公开开庭，仲裁裁决书强制性公开。仲裁程序优化了国际体育兴奋剂违规处理流程，但本质上并没有扩充国际体育仲裁院的权力。中国应该积极研究国际体育仲裁院兴奋剂判例，应对这一改革。     

The moral disengagement in sport scale–short

Abstract

A scale has recently been developed to measure moral disengagement in sport (Boardley & Kavussanu, 2007 Boardley, I. D. and Kavussanu, M. 2007. Development and validation of the Moral Disengagement in Sport Scale. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 29: 608–628. [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). It consists of 32 items that measure the eight mechanisms of moral disengagement proposed by Bandura (1991 Bandura, A. 1991. “Social cognitive theory of moral thought and action”. In Handbook of moral behaviour and development: Theory, research, and applications, Edited by: Kurtines, W. M. and Gewirtz, J. L. Vol. 1, 71–129. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.  [Google Scholar]). In the present study, we aimed to: (a) examine whether a subset of these items could form a short version of the scale; (b) provide evidence for the construct validity of the short version; and (c) test its measurement invariance across sex and sport type. A total of 992 football, rugby, hockey, basketball, and netball players from three different samples completed the long version of the scale. Data analyses indicated that the short version of the scale consisted of eight items and had high internal consistency. Construct validity of the scale was evidenced via correlations with sport moral disengagement and prosocial and antisocial behaviour. Multisample confirmatory factor analyses established measurement invariance across sex and partial measurement invariance across four team sports. In conclusion, the short version of the scale is a reliable and valid measure of moral disengagement in sport.     

奥运会中兴奋剂问题

围绕奥林匹克理想、原则与兴奋剂,兴奋剂与人体健康的道德关系,兴奋剂的科研问题,对禁用兴奋剂的讨论等内容,进行了综合的讨论,得出以下结论:1.兴奋剂在竞技体育公平竞争原则中具有两极性。2.兴奋剂帮助人们实现挖掘其潜能的作用。3.兴奋剂对运动员的身体健康具有一定的副作用。4.兴奋剂是科研的产物,科研本身是一种创造性的破坏活动。5.禁用兴奋剂的法规和手段难以恰当地解决兴奋剂问题,且派生出新的不公平性、危险性和欺骗性。     

Der Dopingdiskurs der 1950er und 1960er Jahre in den Leitmedien Der Spiegel und Die Zeit

Doping and antidoping are socially constructed, evolving and historically contingent phenomena relying on actors agreeing about allowed and deviant behaviour. Therefore, public discourse about doping represents an important part of the history of doping and antidoping. Content analysis of doping discourse in German quality media Der Spiegel und Die Zeit in the 1950s and 1960s shows that public attention for doping was rather low even though awareness increased due to the politicisation of sport and the rise of anabolic doping. Doping does not appear as a particular pressing but solvable problem. Moreover, doping is not linked to West German sport. In ethical terms, doping is perceived negatively. Neither does there exist a general mistrust in the sport bodies nor are sport bodies or sport policy clearly and resolutely requested to act. Therefore, the well-known 1969 article by Brigitte Berendonk marks a qualitative turn in public doping discourse.     

Observing the coach-created motivational environment across training and competition in youth sport

Adopting an integrated achievement goal (Nicholls, J. G. (1989). The competitive ethos and democratic education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.) and self-determination theory (Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 227–268. doi:10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01) perspective as proffered by Duda, J. L. (2013). (The conceptual and empirical foundations of empowering coaching^TM: Setting the stage for the PAPA project. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 11, 311–318. doi:10.1080/1612197X.2013.839414), the aim of the current study was to observe empowering and disempowering features of the multidimensional motivational coaching environment in training and competition in youth sport. Seventeen grass-roots soccer coaches were observed and rated in training and competitive settings using the multidimensional motivational climate observation system (MMCOS; Smith, N., Tessier, D., Tzioumakis, Y., Quested, E., Appleton, P., Sarrazin, P., … Duda, J. L. (2015). Development and validation of the multidimensional motivational climate observation system (MMCOS). Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 37, 4–22. doi:10.1123/jsep.2014-0059). In line with our hypotheses, coaches created different motivational environments in the two contexts. More specifically, coaches were observed to create a less empowering and more disempowering environment in competition compared to in training. The observed differences were underpinned by distinctive motivational strategies used by coaches in the two contexts. Findings have implications for the assessment of the coach-created motivational environment and the promotion of quality motivation for young athletes taking part in grass-roots-level sport.     

Introduction to the special issue on motivational climate in sport and physical education

This issue of the European Journal of Sport Science is dedicated to six investigations of motivational climate in sport and physical education. The combined results of these articles underscore the facilitative value of significant others in developing achievement motivation among sport and physical education participants. Moreover, the research supports the argument that task-involved climates - where effort, learning, and self-referential goal achievement are promoted - produce more adaptive motivational climates than do ego-involved climates, where winning and social comparisons of ability are advocated.     

The social-cognitive mechanisms regulating adolescents' use of doping substances

Abstract

In this study, we assessed the longitudinal effects of social-cognitive mechanisms on the self-reported use of doping substances and supplements among Italian high school students. In total, 1232 students completed questionnaires measuring various psychological factors hypothesized to influence students' intention to use substances. Three months later, 762 of the students completed the same questionnaires a second time and also reported their use of substances during the time between assessments. Overall, the percentages of students using doping substances (2.1%) or supplements (14.4%) were consistent with values reported in the literature. Analysis of the data showed that adolescents' intention to use doping substances increased with stronger attitudes about doping, stronger beliefs that significant others would approve of their use, a stronger conviction that doping use can be justified, and a lowered capacity to resist situational pressure or personal desires. In turn, stronger intentions and moral disengagement contributed to a greater use of doping substances during the previous 3 months. Doping use was also correlated significantly to supplementation. In conclusion, our results provide novel information about some of the psychological processes possibly regulating adolescents' use of doping substances and supplements. The results also highlight possible areas for future study and intervention, focusing on the prevention of adolescents' substance use.     

体育锻炼心理学研究综述

体育锻炼心理学是一个新兴的研究领域,本文通过对此领域中主要研究文献的回顾和分析,具体讨论了体育锻炼心理学的内涵,影响体育锻炼行为的心理因素,体育锻炼的心理健康效益,体育锻炼产生心理健康效益的可能机制以及未来的发展趋势等问题。     

兴奋剂泛滥的技术根源分析

运用哲学思辨的方法,分析兴奋剂泛滥的根源,结果表明:兴奋剂之所以泛滥,一方面是人们为了胜利的目的而采取的一种严重违背体育道德规范的不正当行为以及客观存在的兴奋剂检测的伦理和法律障碍造成的,另一方面是因为兴奋剂的检测不可避免地陷入了技术悖论之中,即兴奋剂的检测总是在兴奋剂产生之后,检测技术也总是落后于兴奋剂的研制技术。     

The Preference for and Tolerance of the Intensity of Exercise Questionnaire: A psychometric evaluation among college women

Abstract

Individuals differ in the intensity of exercise that they prefer and the intensity that they can tolerate. We examined the psychometric properties of the Preference for and Tolerance of the Intensity of Exercise Questionnaire (PRETIE-Q; Ekkekakis, Hall, & Petruzzello, 2005: Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 27, 350 – 374). A sample of 601 college women (mean age 20 years) completed the PRETIE-Q and the Godin Leisure-Time Exercise Questionnaire. Both the Preference and the Tolerance scale were internally consistent (alpha coefficients of 0.89 and 0.86, respectively), with all items making positive contributions. A confirmatory factor analysis showed that model fit was reasonable. Both Preference and Tolerance were related to the frequency of participation in strenuous exercise and the total leisure-time exercise score. The PRETIE-Q appears to be an internally consistent and structurally valid measure, with a broad range of possible applications in exercise science.     

Moral disengagement in sport

Historically, theories of morality have focused predominantly on moral cognition at the expense of moral action. One theory that considers moral action as well as moral cognition is Bandura's (1991) Social Cognitive Theory of Moral Thought and Action. One aspect of this theory that has recently proved particularly popular with researchers investigating sport morality is that of moral disengagement. Moral disengagement is a collective term for eight psychosocial mechanisms that selectively inhibit moral standards from preventing reprehensible conduct by disengaging self-reproof when one engages in conduct that contravenes one's moral standards. In this review, research examining moral disengagement in the sport context is discussed. Research in this area can be grouped into two broad categories: (a) moral disengagement and behaviours that occur during sport participation; and (b) moral disengagement and doping in sport. The present review considers work addressing both categories. Within each category, the main findings of pertinent studies are discussed, and strengths and weaknesses of these studies are identified. The review concludes with directions for future research.     

The moral disengagement in sport scale--short

A scale has recently been developed to measure moral disengagement in sport (Boardley & Kavussanu, 2007). It consists of 32 items that measure the eight mechanisms of moral disengagement proposed by Bandura (1991). In the present study, we aimed to: (a) examine whether a subset of these items could form a short version of the scale; (b) provide evidence for the construct validity of the short version; and (c) test its measurement invariance across sex and sport type. A total of 992 football, rugby, hockey, basketball, and netball players from three different samples completed the long version of the scale. Data analyses indicated that the short version of the scale consisted of eight items and had high internal consistency. Construct validity of the scale was evidenced via correlations with sport moral disengagement and prosocial and antisocial behaviour. Multisample confirmatory factor analyses established measurement invariance across sex and partial measurement invariance across four team sports. In conclusion, the short version of the scale is a reliable and valid measure of moral disengagement in sport.