An objective method for depicting team performance in elite professional rugby union

Using a two-study approach, we examined a methodology for objectively depicting team performance and form in a professional rugby union side. Study 1 developed standardized indicators to examine a team's performance in a single match relative to their previous matches over a domestic season via a performance report and form chart. This resulted in standardized performance indicators that provided instant and coherent feedback on the team's performance relative to previous standards. Study 2 then utilized this methodology to compare a match between two professional sides, played the following season, to assess the extent to which the performance by one team affected that of the other. Comparison of the two teams' performances, for the match they played against each other, identified a drop in relative performance (against previous standards) for both teams on the same performance indicators. This appeared to be due to the match being a close, hard-fought contest particularly in the tackle and around the gain-line. The findings of the two studies suggest an accurate and viable methodology for depicting team performance that is superior to the global measures previously adopted. Presenting teams' current standardized performances (i.e. form) on a single visual scale also has utility for coaches within an applied setting. Future research should further investigate the effect of one team's performance on another through both individual and team outcomes.     

Squad management,injury and match performance in a professional soccer team over a championship-winning season

Abstract

Squad management, injury and physical, tactical and technical match performance were investigated in a professional soccer team across five consecutive league seasons (2008–2013, 190 league games) with specific focus on a championship-winning season (2010/11). For each player, match participation and time-loss injuries were recorded, the latter prospectively diagnosed by the team's physician. Defending and attacking tactical and technical performance indicators investigated included ball possession and possession in opponents' half, passes, forward passes, completed passes and forward passes, crosses and completed crosses, goal attempts and goal attempts on target, successful final third entries, free-kicks and 50/50 duels won/lost. Physical performance measures included total distance and distance covered at high-speeds (≥19.1 km/h). Results showed that during the 2010/11 season, squad utilisation was lowest potentially owing to the observed lower match injury occurrence and working days lost to injury thereby increasing player availability. In 2010/11, the team won both its highest number of points and conceded its lowest number of goals especially over the second half of this season. The team also won its highest number of games directly via a goal from a substitute and scored and conceded a goal first on the highest and lowest number of occasions, respectively. While multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) detected a significant difference in some attacking and defensive performance indicators across the five seasons, these were generally not distinguishing factors in 2010/11. Similarly, univariate ANOVAs showed a significant difference in running distances covered across seasons, but the trend was for less activity in 2010/11.     

A method to assess the influence of individual player performance distribution on match outcome in team sports

This study developed a method to determine whether the distribution of individual player performances can be modelled to explain match outcome in team sports, using Australian Rules football as an example. Player-recorded values (converted to a percentage of team total) in 11 commonly reported performance indicators were obtained for all regular season matches played during the 2014 Australian Football League season, with team totals also recorded. Multiple features relating to heuristically determined percentiles for each performance indicator were then extracted for each team and match, along with the outcome (win/loss). A generalised estimating equation model comprising eight key features was developed, explaining match outcome at a median accuracy of 63.9% under 10-fold cross-validation. Lower 75th, 90th and 95th percentile values for team goals and higher 25th and 50th percentile values for disposals were linked with winning. Lower 95th and higher 25th percentile values for Inside 50s and Marks, respectively, were also important contributors. These results provide evidence supporting team strategies which aim to obtain an even spread of goal scorers in Australian Rules football. The method developed in this investigation could be used to quantify the importance of individual contributions to overall team performance in team sports.     

Variability of inter-team distances associated with match events in elite-standard soccer

Abstract

In soccer, critical match events like goal attempts can be preceded by periods of instability in the balance between the two teams' behaviours. Therefore, we determined periods of high variability in the distance between the teams' centroid positions longitudinally and laterally in an international-standard soccer match and evaluated corresponding match events. Position data were collected with AMISCO Pro®. Inter-team distance variability was calculated over a 3-s moving window. Out of the 242 match periods that exceeded the variability criterion, 51 were dead-ball situations. Match events identified through longitudinal inter-team distance primarily related to defending players moving forward-backward after a longitudinal pass. Match events identified through lateral inter-team distance mainly corresponded with defending players moving laterally following sideways passing. One of two goals and two of fourteen goal-attempts were preceded by a period of high variability. Together, periods of highly variable inter-team distance were associated with collective defensive actions and team reorganisation in dead-ball moments rather than goals or goal attempts. Inter-team dynamics quantified (mutual) reorganisation of the teams and marked teams' collective defensive ability to respond to attacking explorations.     

Dynamics of the game in soccer: Detection of T-patterns

Abstract

Traditional approaches to the quantification of team sports have proved to be limited in their ability to identify complex structural regularities that, despite being unobservable, nonetheless underlie the development of the sporting contest between opposing teams. This paper describes a method for detecting the dynamics of play in professional soccer through the analysis of temporal patterns (T-patterns). The observation instrument used was SOF-5, which is especially designed for studying the dynamics of the game in soccer. The recording consisted of within-session monitoring using the MATCH VISION STUDIO 3.0 software, while the THEME software was used to detect and analyse T-patterns. These T-patterns revealed regularities in the playing style of the observed team, FC Barcelona. The structures detected included a ball possession pattern, whereby the ball was first kept in the central zone before being played forward, through several moves, into the zones closest to the opposing team's goal in order to disrupt the latter's equilibrium. The results obtained show that it is possible to identify stable temporal structures that provide information about concurrent interaction contexts with respect to lateral position and zone. As such, the proposed methodology appears to be useful in detecting complex structures within the game of soccer, structures which may help coaches to design attacking and defensive strategies.     

“I am” versus “we are”: Effects of distinctive variants of self-talk on efficacy beliefs and motor performance

Abstract

Before completing a team-based dart-throwing activity, 80 undergraduates were randomly assigned to one of three pre-performance self-talk conditions: (a) self-talk statements that focused upon one's personal capabilities, (b) self-talk statements emphasizing the group's capabilities, or (c) a control condition where neutral statements were implemented. Participants in all conditions subsequently rated their confidence in their own (i.e. self-efficacy) as well as their team's (i.e. collective efficacy) capabilities, before carrying out the task. Overall, self-efficacy, collective efficacy, and performance indicators were all greatest for individuals who practised self-talk focusing on the group's capabilities, as opposed to individual-focused and neutral conditions. Findings are considered with respect to their novel theoretical contribution to the social cognition literature and their implications for fostering efficacy perceptions and team performance.     

Effect of playing tactics on achieving score-box possessions in a random series of team possessions from Norwegian professional soccer matches

Abstract

Methods of analysis that include an assessment of opponent interactions are thought to provide a more valid means of team match performance. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of playing tactics on achieving score-box possession by assessing opponent interactions in Norwegian elite soccer matches. We analysed a random series of 1703 team possessions from 163 of 182 (90%) matches played in the professional men's league during the 2004 season. Multidimensional qualitative data obtained from ten ordered categorical variables were used. Offensive tactics were more effective in producing score-box possessions when playing against an imbalanced defence (28.5%) than against a balanced defence (6.5%) (P < 0.001). Multiple logistic regression found that, for the main variable “team possession type”, counterattacks were more effective than elaborate attacks when playing against an imbalanced defence (odds ratio: 2.69; 95% confidence interval: 1.64 to 4.43) but not against a balanced defence (odds ratio: 1.14; 95% confidence interval: 0.47 to 2.76). Assessment of opponent interactions is critical to evaluate the effectiveness of offensive playing tactics on producing score-box possessions, and improves the validity of team match-performance analysis in soccer.     

The development of position-specific performance indicators in professional rugby union

The aim of this study was to construct a valid and reliable methodology for the analysis of performance profiles of individual playing positions within rugby union. Twenty-two matches were sampled from the domestic season of a professional male rugby union team. Key performance indicators for individual positions were developed and notated using a computerized behavioural analysis system. Performance profiles of playing positions containing data from one or more individuals were then constructed to compare intra-positional differences. Significant differences (chi-square) were observed between individuals within all the tested playing positions for the principal performance indicators (passing, carrying and tackling for the forward positions, and passing, carrying, tackling and kicking for the backs). For example, the difference between the two outside-halves in the study (P?<?0.001) was illustrated by one of the players having a median of 6 successful carries for the season (95% confidence limits of 13 and 3), whereas the other had a median of 2 successful carries (95% confidence limits of 5 and 1). The findings suggest that while general positional performance profiles appear to exist, intra-positional differences may occur due to variations in an individual's style of play, the decision-making demands of the position and the effects of potential confounding variables. Multiple profiles may therefore be necessary for some playing positions to account for variation in factors such as playing conditions and the strength of the opposition.     

Explaining match outcome in elite Australian Rules football using team performance indicators

The relationships between team performance indicators and match outcome have been examined in many team sports, however are limited in Australian Rules football. Using data from the 2013 and 2014 Australian Football League (AFL) regular seasons, this study assessed the ability of commonly reported discrete team performance indicators presented in their relative form (standardised against their opposition for a given match) to explain match outcome (Win/Loss). Logistic regression and decision tree (chi-squared automatic interaction detection (CHAID)) analyses both revealed relative differences between opposing teams for “kicks” and “goal conversion” as the most influential in explaining match outcome, with two models achieving 88.3% and 89.8% classification accuracies, respectively. Models incorporating a smaller performance indicator set displayed a slightly reduced ability to explain match outcome (81.0% and 81.5% for logistic regression and CHAID, respectively). However, both were fit to 2014 data with reduced error in comparison to the full models. Despite performance similarities across the two analysis approaches, the CHAID model revealed multiple winning performance indicator profiles, thereby increasing its comparative feasibility for use in the field. Coaches and analysts may find these results useful in informing strategy and game plan development in Australian Rules football, with the development of team-specific models recommended in future.     

The relative age effect has no influence on match outcome in youth soccer

PurposeIn age-restricted youth sport, the over-selection of athletes born in the first quarter of the year and under-selection of athletes born in the last quarter of the year has been called the relative age effect (RAE). Its existence in youth sports like soccer is well established. Why it occurs has not been identified, however, one thought is that older players, generally taller and heavier, are thought to improve the team's chances of winning. To test this assumption, birth dates and match outcome were correlated to see if teams with the oldest mean age had a systematic advantage against teams with younger mean ages.MethodsPlayer birth dates and team records (n = 5943 players on 371 teams; both genders; U11–U16) were obtained from the North Carolina Youth Soccer Association for the highest level of statewide youth competition.ResultsThe presence of an RAE was demonstrated with significant oversampling from players born in the 1st vs. the 4th quarter (overall: 29.6% vs. 20.9% respectively, p < 0.0001). Mean team age was regressed on match outcomes (winning %, points/match, points/goal, and goals for, against, and goal difference), but there was no evidence of any systematic influence of mean team age and match outcomes, except possibly in U11 males.ConclusionSelecting players based on physical maturity (and subsequently, on age) does not appear to have any systematic influence on match outcome or season record in youth soccer suggesting that the selection process should be focused on player ability and not on physical maturation.     

基于时间序列的中超联赛球队竞技表现稳定性分析

竞技状态是训练学的核心研究概念之一,其会极大地影响运动员竞技表现。竞技表现反映了竞技状态好坏,以往对此内容的研究多集中于优秀运动员个体。为了探讨集体项目中的竞技表现及其影响因素,选择中超联赛作为研究对象。中超联赛是亚洲最好的职业足球联赛之一,代表了中国职业足球的最高水平,受到广泛的关注。通过时间序列分析中的自相关函数和互相关函数对足球比赛表现分析进行实证研究,以2017赛季中国足球超级联赛的240场比赛为样本,探明影响球队竞技状态的表现指标稳定性,并确定对球队战绩影响较大的关键指标。研究结果显示：（1）对联赛排名上游的球队而言,传球成功率、拦截和抢断是较为重要的指标;（2）进球和进攻类指标是强队制胜的关键;（3）联赛排名上游和中游球队比赛表现的整体稳定性要高于下游球队。     

基于时间序列的中超联赛球队竞技表现稳定性分析

竞技状态是训练学的核心研究概念之一，其会极大地影响运动员竞技表现。竞技表现反映了竞技状态好坏，以往对此内容的研究多集中于优秀运动员个体。为了探讨集体项目中的竞技表现及其影响因素，选择中超联赛作为研究对象。中超联赛是亚洲最好的职业足球联赛之一，代表了中国职业足球的最高水平，受到广泛的关注。通过时间序列分析中的自相关函数和互相关函数对足球比赛表现分析进行实证研究，以2017赛季中国足球超级联赛的240场比赛为样本，探明影响球队竞技状态的表现指标稳定性，并确定对球队战绩影响较大的关键指标。研究结果显示：（1）对联赛排名上游的球队而言，传球成功率、拦截和抢断是较为重要的指标；（2）进球和进攻类指标是强队制胜的关键；（3）联赛排名上游和中游球队比赛表现的整体稳定性要高于下游球队。     

Evaluating strategic periodisation in team sport

The planned peaking for matches or events of perceived greatest priority or difficulty throughout a competitive season is commonplace in high-level team sports. Despite this prevalence in the field, little research exists on the practice. This study aimed to provide a framework for strategic periodisation which team sport organisations can use to evaluate the efficacy of such plans. Data relating to factors potentially influencing the difficulty of matches were obtained for games played in the 2014 Australian Football League season. These included the match location, opposition rank, between-match break and team “form”. Binary logistic regression models were developed to determine the level of association between these factors and match outcome (win/loss). Models were constructed using “fixed” factors available to clubs prior to commencement of the season, and then also “dynamic” factors obtained at monthly intervals throughout the in-season period. The influence of playing away from home on match difficulty became stronger as the season progressed, whilst the opposition rank from the preceding season was the strongest indicator of difficulty across all models. The approaches demonstrated in this paper can be used practically to evaluate both the long- and short-term efficacy of strategic periodisation plans in team sports as well as inform and influence coach programming.     

Informing in-season tactical periodisation in team sport: development of a match difficulty index for Super Rugby

In team sports, tactical periodisation refers to the planned manipulation of training loads with the aim of prioritising athlete readiness for matches of greatest importance. Although monitoring of athletes’ physical condition is often used to inform this planning, the direct influence of external factors on match difficulty has not been well quantified. In this study, a ‘match difficulty index’ (MDI) for use in Super Rugby was developed, based on the influence imparted by five external factors on previous match outcomes. Specifically, information relating to match location, days break between matches, time-zone change and opposition ladder position (both current and previous year) were collected for matches played during the 2011–2013 Super Rugby seasons. Logistic regression analyses were used to assess the importance of each of these factors with respect to match outcome (win/loss), with opposition ladder position and match location (home, domestic away or international) exerting the greatest influence on match difficulty. Three separate cross-validated models were constructed, with match outcome classification performance reported as 66.2%, 65.5% and 63.7% respectively. The three MDI models emanating from this study can each be used to inform tactical periodisation program design both prior to and during the regular season.     

Responses to Forces Influencing Cohesion As a Function of Player Status and Level of Male Varsity Basketball Competition

Abstract

This exploratory study determined if the responses of male varsity basketball players to six factors influencing cohesion were a function of level of competitive intensity and/or the importance of the players to their team. Players on intact teams from five levels of competition – elementary school, junior high school, senior high school, small college and large college–responded to a cohesion questionnaire at the end of the season. Coaches designated five players with the most game playing time as “starters” and five players with the least game playing time as “reserves.” A team factor score for Team Performance Satisfaction, Self Performance Satisfaction, Task Cohesion, Affiliation Cohesion, Desire for Recognition and Value of Membership was calculated. Each team factor score served as the dependent variable in a 2 (player status) × 5 (level of competition) analysis ofcovariance design, with teams nested in the second factor. The won-loss record served as the covariate. Results indicated that “starters” were more satisfied with their own performance, were more task conscious, had a greater affiliation desire, and valued their membership on the team to a greater degree than the “reserves.” The elementary and junior high school team members were significantly more satisfied with the team's performance, were more satisfied with their own self performance, were more affiliation conscious, and valued their team membership to a greater degree than did college team members. The interaction between player status and level of competition was not significant for any of the factor scores.     

Corporate social responsibility and environmental sustainability: Why professional sport is greening the playing field

In this study, we explore institutional forces affecting environmental sustainability in professional sport teams and leagues in North America. Interviews with sport executives and executives from partner groups, 122 websites and organizational documents, and 56 media reports were examined. Data revealed how environmental management practices are being diffused in professional sport organizations. Evidence indicated associative behavior among sport organizations with respect to environmental management. Data also illustrated that media played a role in driving and defining the type and extent of involvement in professional sport teams’ environmental sustainability efforts. We discuss environmental sustainability as it affects a team's or league's CSR related initiatives (i.e., averting legal recourse, saving money, as well as building stronger relationships with stakeholders (e.g., customers, fans, local communities, federal governments and corporate partners)), and speculate how these efforts might evolve and inform the development of environmental sustainability in organizations in the sport, service and entertainment sectors.     

Human versus virtual robotics soccer: A technical analysis

Abstract

Soccer is a team sport in which the performances of all team members are important for the outcome of a match. Even though the analysis of game events can be used to measure the team's performance, their perception, especially during the match, is extremely difficult, even for the involved agents. Soccer has been used as a simulation environment in many studies, mainly in the area of robotics. The RoboCup is an international robotics competition with an ambitious goal: in 2050 a robotics team will be capable of defeating the human world champion at the time. In this context, we compared technical similarities between human and robotics soccer. Based on an off-line automatic event detection tool, game statistics for the finals of both human and robotics soccer tournaments were collected and compared using the Wilcoxon test. The results show that the most frequent event in both forms of soccer is successful passes. Analysing the two types of passes considered (successful and missed), we conclude that there are significant differences between the two forms (W = 2, P=0.000354), with human soccer presenting a higher percentage of successful passes (77.89% vs. 66.97%). Of restart events (W=0, P=0.00048965), the most frequent one, in both forms, is the throw-in (human 59.91%, robotics 66.4%), and the least frequent is the corner (human 13.7%, robotics 14.09%). Regarding the frequency of shots, in the robotics environment “shots” were the most predominant type (43.27%), whereas in human soccer “shots on target” predominated (71.25%; W=64, P=0.000085641). Finally, the number of faults is minor in robotics soccer.     

Understanding the relative contribution of technical and tactical performance to match outcome in Australian Football

ABSTRACT

The aim of this study was to assess if tactical and technical performance indicators (PIs) could be used in combination to model match outcomes in Australian Football (AF). A database of 101 technical PIs and 14 tactical PIs from every match in the 2009–2016 Australian Football League (AFL) seasons was merged. Two outcome measures Win-loss and Score margin were used as dependent variables. The top 45 ranked technical and tactical PIs from a feature selection process were used to model match outcome using decision tree and Generalised Linear Models (GLMs). Of the top 45 selected features, this included seven tactical PIs. The Win-loss-based Decision tree model achieved a classification accuracy of 89.0% and GLM 93.2%. A Score margin-based GLM achieved a root mean squared error (RMSE) of 6.9 points. A combined approach to the classification of match outcomes provided no improvement in model accuracy compared with previous literature. However, this study has established the relative importance of technical and tactical measures of performance in relation to successful team performance in AF.     

Determinants of expected vs. actual match outcome: an examination of the German Bundesliga

Within society, there are many publications regarding expectations of firm performance. These include analysis, industry insiders and ranking service. Within sports, bookmakers provide betting odds that reflect the expected outcome of matches and are determined by several factors. The purpose of this study is to analyse the determinants of expected match outcome (i.e. betting odds) and compare them to those of actual match outcome. Data from the 2010/2011 season of the German Bundesliga (soccer) are made available that are combined with betting odds for each match. Regression results show that several factors, such as difference in standing between team and opponent, difference in competitions played, difference in points earned over the last five matches, differences in standing last season and home advantage significantly influence expected match outcome. On the contrary, actual match outcome is only determined by the latter two factors.     

打造学习团队：中国自由式滑雪空中技巧集训队学习行为影响因素的质性分析

自由式滑雪空中技巧是我国冬奥雪上优势项目,一直是我国冬奥会雪上项目夺金的重点项目,在即将举行的2022年北京冬奥会上也肩负着夺金的重任。探讨这支队伍的学习行为对团队绩效的影响,可以为提升绩效水平,确保完成夺金任务提供智力支持。运用质性研究方法分析影响自由式滑雪空中技巧集训队学习行为的因素,结果表明:内部和外部因素使队员的学习行为得以产生并持续下去。内部因素由学习习惯、团队互动、目标导向、身心状态、内在素养构成,外部因素则由国家重视程度、团队冲突、领导风格、圈子、辅助工具和家庭状况构成。并提出优化团队成员学习行为的策略。