Research design and statistics in biomechanics and motor control

Biomechanics and motor control researchers measure how the body moves and interacts with its environment. The aim of this review paper is to consider some key issues in research methods in biomechanics and motor control. The review is organized into four sections: proposing, conducting, analysing and reporting research. In the first of these, we emphasize the importance of defining a worthy research question and of planning the study before its implementation to prevent later difficulties in the analysis and interpretation of data. In the second section, we cover selection of trial sizes and suggest that using three trials or more may be beneficial to provide more 'representative' and valid data. The third section on analysis of data concentrates on effect size statistics, qualitative and numerical trend analysis and cross-correlations. As sample sizes are often small, the use of effect size is recommended to support the results of statistical significance testing. In using cross-correlations, we recommend that scatterplots of one variable against the other, with the identified time lag included, be inspected to confirm that the linear relationship assumption underpinning this statistic is met and, if appropriate, that a linearity transformation be applied. Finally, we consider important information related to the issues above that should be included when reporting research. We recommend reporting checks or corrections for violations of underpinning assumptions, and the effect of these checks or corrections, to assist in advancing knowledge in biomechanics and motor control.     

Confidence crisis of results in biomechanics research

Many biomechanics studies have small sample sizes and incorrect statistical analyses, so reporting of inaccurate inferences and inflated magnitude of effects are common in the field. This review examines these issues in biomechanics research and summarises potential solutions from research in other fields to increase the confidence in the experimental effects reported in biomechanics. Authors, reviewers and editors of biomechanics research reports are encouraged to improve sample sizes and the resulting statistical power, improve reporting transparency, improve the rigour of statistical analyses used, and increase the acceptance of replication studies to improve the validity of inferences from data in biomechanics research. The application of sports biomechanics research results would also improve if a larger percentage of unbiased effects and their uncertainty were reported in the literature.     

Evidence for biomechanics and motor learning research improving golf performance

The aim of this review was to determine how the findings of biomechanics and motor control/learning research may be used to improve golf performance. To be eligible, the biomechanics and motor learning studies had to use direct (ball displacement and shot accuracy) or indirect (clubhead velocity and clubface angle) golf performance outcome measures. Biomechanical studies suggested that reducing the radius path of the hands during the downswing, increasing wrist torque and/or range of motion, delaying wrist motion to late in the downswing, increasing downswing amplitude, improving sequential acceleration of body parts, improving weight transfer, and utilising X-factor stretch and physical conditioning programmes can improve clubhead velocity. Motor learning studies suggested that golf performance improved more when golfers focused on swing outcome or clubhead movement rather than specific body movements. A distributed practice approach involving multiple sessions per week of blocked, errorless practice may be best for improving putting accuracy of novice golfers, although variable practice may be better for skilled golfers. Video, verbal, or a combination of video and verbal feedback can increase mid-short iron distance in novice to mid-handicap (hcp) golfers. Coaches should not only continue to critique swing technique but also consider how the focus, structure, and types of feedback for practice may alter learning for different groups of golfers.     

正确选用体育统计方法的若干思考

正确选择统计方法是保证研究结果真实可靠性的重要前提条件,但是在具体应用实践过程中经常遇到一些运用不正确,甚至误用的现象。结合体育实践,对有关体育统计方法正确选用的原则进行探讨分析,提出了在实际应用中正确选用体育统计方法应注意的若干问题。     

练习变异性在运动技能学习中的研究进展

练习变异性与一般动作程序的参数变化有关,是通过改变运动参数及不同的背景干扰效应对练习效果产生影响,相对比于以往的固定练习法,变换练习法能够使参与者在练习运动技能过程中因环境、速度、距离、力量等参数的不同,从而体验到不同的运动特征,有效地促进运动技能的学习。现就近10年的研究成果进行综述,希望为今后的研究带来裨益。     

Stimulus intensity and experimental design effects on motor response processing

Experimental design effects and range effects may have influenced previous studies on motor response processing (Grice & Hunter, 1964; Grice, Nullmeyer, & Schnizlein, 1979; Poulton, 1973). This investigation was conducted concurrently with two experiments. First, Erlebacher's (1977) more powerful analysis of variance (ANOVA) model, which allows for the testing of the independent variable (stimulus intensity effect), the experimental design effect (between-subjects [BS] vs. within-subjects [WS]), and the important interaction between independent variable and experimental design was utilized to clarify if the nature of the experimental design (BS, WS) biases motor response processing. Second, Erlebacher's (1977) ANOVA model was used to determine if motor response processing was affected by stimulus intensity and experimental design when different ranges of auditory stimuli were compared. Results indicate motor response processing was inversely affected by increasing stimulus intensity. Experimental design effects and range effects did not appear to bias motor response processing. We conclude stimulus intensity effects on motor response processing appear to be the result of true neuromotor functioning and not artifacts of experimental design or of range effects.     

生物力学在武术散打中的应用现状及研究对策

武术散打技、战术水平的提高与发展,与现代高新技术密不可分,与生物力学的研究手段和方法更是相互交融。揭示武术散打运动中的生物力学相关原理,建立合理技术动作模式,探究散打运动的内在规律和特点,分析影响和制约其运动技能的因素,是武术散打研究领域的重要任务之一。然而,通过生物力学在武术散打中的应用现状分析,其结果令人忧虑。对此,提出了武术散打的生物力学研究方向和对策。     

对高校游泳教学陆上辅助练习运用的探讨

本文通过在高校游泳课中加强陆上辅助练习进行教学 ,经实验对比 ,结果表明 :该教学方法有利于学生形成正确的技术动作表象 ,加速掌握游泳技能的过程 ,取得令人满意的教学效果。     

Significant and meaningful effects in sports biomechanics research

Errors in statistical analysis of multiple dependent variables and in documenting the size of effects are common in the scientific and biomechanical literature. In this paper, I review these errors and several solutions that can improve the validity of sports biomechanics research reports. Studies examining multiple dependent variables should either control for the inflation of Type I errors (e.g. Holm's procedure) during multiple comparisons or use multivariate analysis of variance to focus on the structure and interaction of the dependent variables. When statistically significant differences are observed, research reports should provide confidence limits or effect sizes to document the size of the effects. Authors of sports biomechanics research reports are encouraged to analyse and present their data accounting for the experiment-wise Type I error rate, as well as reporting data documenting the size or practical significance of effects reaching their standard of statistical significance.     

Excel统计函数的组合技术在体育统计中的应用

以统计常用指标、参数估计与假设检验、回归分析作为实验对象,利用excel2002的统计函数进行了组合设计,整合出适合个人偏好的数据分析工作簿,从而能快速的分析数据.     

Research design and mental practice

Research design is the basis from which study outcomes are obtained. Unfortunately, a multitude of methodological design combinations has historically been used to examine the phenomenon of mental practice relative to motor behaviour. The present paper contends that these varied methodological combinations obscure efforts to produce a solid foundation of mental practice evidence. The paper presents an overview of the implemented mental practice research designs via a methodological components model and illustrates how this model can be used to clarify design issues of past mental practice research, and plan more effective future studies. Analysis of past research demonstrates the need for a balanced emphasis between study design and study outcome, and suggests a more explicit methodological focus in order to promote more effectively designed mental practice studies in the future.     

Student factors related to learning in biomechanics

The aim of this study was to identify the student behaviours and characteristics that are related to learning biomechanical concepts. The Biomechanics Concept Inventory (BCI) was given to 53 kinesiology majors before and after an introductory biomechanics class together with a survey of student behaviours to determine factors that assisted in learning. Analysis of scores from 49 students showed significant (P < 0.001) improvement following instruction. Variables that significantly (P < 0.05) and uniquely correlated with improvement were grade point average (r = 0.46) and student interest in biomechanics (r = 0.41). Thirty-one percent of the variance in learning could be accounted for by these two variables, with no distinctive associations with student behaviours like course reading, hours studying, and credits earned in maths and physics. However, grade point average was significantly correlated with several student behaviour variables. Consequently, student learning of biomechanical concepts is likely a complex phenomenon with individual learning related to variables that interact with student interest and overall academic ability.     

中国运动生物力学研究现状

采用文献法，对入选第十届全国运动生物力学交流大会论文集的153篇论文，从研究选题、研究内容、研究方法、研究人员状况等方面进行统计分析.旨在了解中国运动生物力学研究现状，预测中国运动生物力学发展变化的趋势.结果表明：研究论文选题内容广泛，研究深入，运动技术类的运动生物力学研究占主流;方法学研究与测试仪器研制水平提高;研究对象由过去单一的运动员而拓展到普通人群，研究内容由过去的运动技术诊断拓展到人类健康、大众健身活动;运动生物力学教学研究和教材建设的内容较少;三维高速录像分析是未来运动学研究的主要方法.高水平的同步研究较少，多学科、多种方法的同步研究是运动生物力学研究今后发展的趋势。     

高校素质拓展课程效果可持续性研究

素质拓展又叫体验式培训,是一种全新的学生自我学习的教学模式。自2002年全国大学生素质拓展计划实施以来,素质拓展教学在全国上百所高校蓬勃发展。本文基于对大学生素质拓展培训模式的研究以及培训效果的调查,指出高校素质拓展课程存在不可持续的问题。通过分析比较指出解决问题的关键在于转变教育理念,并对完善运行管理体制、课程及师资队伍建设等方面提出合理化建议,希望能切实提高素质拓展课程的培训效果,实现素质拓展全面教育的目标。     

运动技能学的迁移研究与练习法的分类

借鉴国外运动技能学有关迁移的研究结果对我国相对落后的练习法研究具有迫切意义.练习法分类的重要性以及我国当前练习法分类体系所存在的问题,要求我们重新审视练习法分类体系.以运动技能学习的迁移规律作为分类标准,可对练习法进行理想的分类.     

辽宁西北地区农民体育健身工程实施效果的研究

以构建和谐社会、建设社会主义新农村理论为指导,以构建农村体育服务体系为目标,运用问卷调查和数理统计的方法,对辽宁西北部地区实施农民体育健身工程实际效果进行追踪调查,旨在让农民更好地享受国家新农村建设的丰硕成果,推进辽宁省农村体育的健康发展,并为其他地区实施农民体育健身工程提供借鉴与参考。     

Use of deterministic models in sports and exercise biomechanics research

A deterministic model is a modeling paradigm that determines the relationships between a movement outcome measure and the biomechanical factors that produce such a measure. This review provides an overview of the use of deterministic models in biomechanics research, a historical summary of this research, and an analysis of the advantages and disadvantages of using deterministic models. The deterministic model approach has been utilized in technique analysis over the last three decades, especially in swimming, athletics field events, and gymnastics. In addition to their applications in sports and exercise biomechanics, deterministic models have been applied successfully in research on selected motor skills. The advantage of the deterministic model approach is that it helps to avoid selecting performance or injury variables arbitrarily and to provide the necessary theoretical basis for examining the relative importance of various factors that influence the outcome of a movement task. Several disadvantages of deterministic models, such as the use of subjective measures for the performance outcome, were discussed. It is recommended that exercise and sports biomechanics scholars should consider using deterministic models to help identify meaningful dependent variables in their studies.     

Important learning factors in high- and low-achieving students in undergraduate biomechanics

The purpose of the present study was to document crucial factors associated with students’ learning of biomechanical concepts, particularly between high- and-low achieving students. Students (N = 113) from three introductory biomechanics classes at two public universities volunteered for the study. Two measures of students’ learning were obtained, final course grade and improvement on the Biomechanics Concept Inventory version 3 administered before and after the course. Participants also completed a 15-item questionnaire documenting student learning characteristics, effort, and confidence. Partial correlations controlling for all other variables in the study, confirmed previous studies that students’ grade point average (p < 0.01), interest in biomechanics, (p < 0.05), and physics credits passed (p < 0.05) are factors uniquely associated with learning biomechanics concepts. Students’ confidence when encountering difficult biomechanics concepts was also significantly (p < 0.05) associated with final grade. There were significant differences between top 15% and bottom 15% achievers on these variables (p < 0.05), as well as on readings completed, work to pay for college per week, and learning epistemology. Consequently, instructors should consider strategies to promote students’ interest in biomechanics and confidence in solving relevant professional problems in order to improve learning for both low- and high-ability students.     

Use of deterministic models in sports and exercise biomechanics research

A deterministic model is a modeling paradigm that determines the relationships between a movement outcome measure and the biomechanical factors that produce such a measure. This review provides an overview of the use of deterministic models in biomechanics research, a historical summary of this research, and an analysis of the advantages and disadvantages of using deterministic models. The deterministic model approach has been utilized in technique analysis over the last three decades, especially in swimming, athletics field events, and gymnastics. In addition to their applications in sports and exercise biomechanics, deterministic models have been applied successfully in research on selected motor skills. The advantage of the deterministic model approach is that it helps to avoid selecting performance or injury variables arbitrarily and to provide the necessary theoretical basis for examining the relative importance of various factors that influence the outcome of a movement task. Several disadvantages of deterministic models, such as the use of subjective measures for the performance outcome, were discussed. It is recommended that exercise and sports biomechanics scholars should consider using deterministic models to help identify meaningful dependent variables in their studies.