Development,construct validity and test–retest reliability of a field-based wheelchair mobility performance test for wheelchair basketball

The aim of this study was to develop and describe a wheelchair mobility performance test in wheelchair basketball and to assess its construct validity and reliability. To mimic mobility performance of wheelchair basketball matches in a standardised manner, a test was designed based on observation of wheelchair basketball matches and expert judgement.

Forty-six players performed the test to determine its validity and 23 players performed the test twice for reliability. Independent-samples t-tests were used to assess whether the times needed to complete the test were different for classifications, playing standards and sex. Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) were calculated to quantify reliability of performance times.

Males performed better than females (P < 0.001, effect size [ES] = ?1.26) and international men performed better than national men (P < 0.001, ES = ?1.62). Performance time of low (≤2.5) and high (≥3.0) classification players was borderline not significant with a moderate ES (P = 0.06, ES = 0.58). The reliability was excellent for overall performance time (ICC = 0.95).

These results show that the test can be used as a standardised mobility performance test to validly and reliably assess the capacity in mobility performance of elite wheelchair basketball athletes. Furthermore, the described methodology of development is recommended for use in other sports to develop sport-specific tests.     

Test–retest reliability of a new device for assessing ankle joint threshold to detect passive movement in healthy adults

This study aimed to evaluate the test–retest reliability of a new device for assessing ankle joint kinesthesia. This device could measure the passive motion threshold of four ankle joint movements, namely plantarflexion, dorsiflexion, inversion and eversion. A total of 21 healthy adults, including 13 males and 8 females, participated in the study. Each participant completed two sessions on two separate days with 1-week interval. The sessions were administered by the same experimenter in the same laboratory. At least 12 trials (three successful trials in each of the four directions) were performed in each session. The mean values in each direction were calculated and analysed. The ICC values of test–retest reliability ranged from 0.737 (dorsiflexion) to 0.935 (eversion), whereas the SEM values ranged from 0.21° (plantarflexion) to 0.52° (inversion). The Bland–Altman plots showed that the reliability of plantarflexion–dorsiflexion was better than that of inversion–eversion. The results evaluated the reliability of the new device as fair to excellent. The new device for assessing kinesthesia could be used to examine the ankle joint kinesthesia.     

Test–retest reliability of physiological parameters in elite junior distance runners following allometric scaling

This study aimed to quantify the intra-individual reliability of a number of physiological variables in a group of national and international young distance runners. Sixteen (8 male, 8 female) participants (16.7?±?1.4 years) performed a submaximal incremental running assessment followed by a maximal running test, on two occasions separated by no more than seven days. Maximal oxygen uptake (V?O_2max), speed at V?O_2max (km?h^?1), running economy and speed and heart rate (HR) at fixed blood lactate concentrations were determined. V?O_2max and running economy were scaled for differences in body mass using a power exponent derived from a larger cohort of young runners (n?=?42). Running economy was expressed as oxygen cost and energy cost at the speed associated with lactate turnpoint (LTP) and the two speeds prior to LTP. Results of analysis of variance revealed an absence of systematic bias between trials. Reliability indices showed a high level of reproducibility across all parameters (typical error [TE] ≤2%; intra-class correlation coefficient >0.8; effect size <0.6). Expressing running economy as energy cost appears to provide superior reliability than using oxygen cost (TE ～1.5% vs. ～2%). Blood lactate and HR were liable to daily fluctuations of 0.14–0.22?mmol?L^?1 and 4–5?beats?min^?1 respectively. The minimum detectable change values (95% confidence) for each parameter are also reported. Exercise physiologists can be confident that measurement of important physiological determinants of distance running performance are highly reproducible in elite junior runners.     

Test–retest reliability of second lactate turnpoint using two different criteria in competitive cyclists

Abstract

The aim of this study was to determine the relative and absolute reliability of second lactate turnpoint using fixed and individual blood lactate method in competitive cyclists. Twenty-eight male, well-trained cyclists (30.2 ± 10.1 years, 72.0 ± 7.4 kg, 177.3 ± 4.7 cm) were recruited to participate in this study. Cyclists completed two incremental cycling tests to exhaustion over a period of 7 days to determine their peak power output, maximal oxygen uptake, maximal heart rate, maximal blood lactate concentration and two lactate turnpoint criteria. The fixed blood concentration criterion (3.5 mM) and an individual criterion were assessed by a lactate-power curve, considering power output, heart rate and oxygen uptake. The main finding of this study was that both lactate turnpoint criteria showed identical low within-subject variation for power output (2.8% coefficient of variation). High values for test–retest correlations ranging from r = 0.70 to r = 0.94 were found for all variables in both threshold criteria. In conclusion, the individual and fixed method to determine the second lactate turnpoint showed similar high absolute and relative reliability in competitive cyclists.     

Developing tests of impaired coordination for Paralympic classification: normative values and test–retest reliability

Current methods of assessing coordination in Paralympic classification are non-instrumented and are based on ordinal scales of measurement and therefore impede the development of evidence-based methods of classification. This paper describes an instrumented battery of tests that measure impaired coordination in a way that will permit evidence-based classification. Test–retest reliability and normative values for each of the tests are reported. Twenty participants visited the laboratory on two occasions, each time completing 11 tests: three running-specific, lower-limb reciprocal tapping tests (yielding five outcome measures); four throwing-specific, upper-limb discrete tapping tests (yielding four outcome measures); and four wheelchair-specific, upper-limb reciprocal tapping tests yielding seven outcome measures. Reliability was evaluated using Intra-class Correlation Coefficients (ICCs), Standard Error of Measurement, Limits of Agreement and Paired t-tests. ICCs for fourteen of the 16 outcome measures were excellent (ICC ≥ 0.80), although systematic bias was evident in two of these—a unilateral, running-specific lower-limb tests on the non-dominant side, and a unilateral wheelchair-specific upper limb test on the dominant side. ICCs for two tests—a bilateral wheelchair-specific upper limb test (0.74), and a unilateral wheelchair-specific upper limb test on the non-dominant side (0.54)—were good and fair respectively. Results indicate that 12 of the measures evaluated have measurement properties that will facilitate the development of evidence-based methods of Paralympic classification in athletics. Positional adjustment and increased familiarization may improve reliability in the other four. Studies evaluating reliability of this test battery in people with coordination impairments are warranted.     

Improving health-related fitness in adolescents: the CrossFit Teens™ randomised controlled trial

The aim of this study was to evaluate the preliminary efficacy and feasibility of the CrossFit Teens? resistance training programme for improving health-related fitness and resistance training skill competency in adolescents. This assessor-blinded randomised controlled trial was conducted in one secondary school in the Hunter Region, Australia, from July to September 2013. Ninety-six (96) students (age = 15.4 (.5) years, 51.5% female) were randomised into intervention (n = 51) or control (n = 45) conditions for 8-weeks (60 min twice per week). Waist circumference, body mass index (BMI), BMI-Z score (primary outcomes), cardiorespiratory fitness (shuttle run test), muscular fitness (standing jump, push-up, handgrip, curl-up test), flexibility (sit and reach) and resistance training skill competency were measured at baseline and immediate post-intervention. Feasibility measures of recruitment, retention, adherence and satisfaction were assessed. Significant group-by-time intervention effects were found for waist circumference [?3.1 cm, P < 0.001], BMI [?1.38 kg · m^?2, P < 0.001], BMI-Z [?0.5 z-scores, P < 0.001], sit and reach [+3.0 cm, P < 0.001], standing jump [+0.1 m, P = 0.021] and shuttle run [+10.3 laps, P = 0.019]. Retention rate was 82.3%. All programme sessions were delivered and participants’ mean satisfaction scores ranged from 4.2 to 4.6 out of 5. The findings demonstrate that CrossFit Teens? is a feasible and efficacious programme for improving health-related fitness in adolescents.     

Physical fitness percentiles for Portuguese children and adolescents aged 10–18 years

Abstract

This study aimed to produce age- and sex-specific physical fitness reference data for Portuguese youth; to report the prevalence of youth in the healthy zone of physical fitness according to the FITNESSGRAM^® criteria; to verify the agreement between the Portuguese physical fitness percentiles and the FITNESSGRAM^® healthy zones. In 2008, 22,048 Portuguese children and adolescents (10–18 years) were evaluated. Physical fitness (curl-ups, push-ups, 20-m shuttle run and modified-back-saver-sit-and-reach tests) was evaluated using the FITNESSGRAM^® Test Battery 8.0. Smoothed percentile curves were estimated using Cole’s LMS method. Boys consistently outperformed girls in every physical fitness test, except for the modified-back-saver-sit-and-reach tests. In both sexes and for all physical fitness tests, higher percentile values were observed at older ages. The 50th percentile of all physical fitness tests had the highest accuracy to discriminate between under healthy zone and healthy zone of the FITNESSGRAM^®. Portuguese schools and physical education teachers may considerer the 50th percentile for age and sex or the FITNESSGRAM^® criteria for classifying participants in the healthy zone as acceptable cut-offs, above which youth should be considered fit. These reference values can be used as normative data and for baseline values for subsequent surveillance of the physical fitness of Portuguese youth.     

The direct and indirect effects of motor competence on adolescents’ mental health through health-related physical fitness

ABSTRACT

Mental health is an important public health issue and up to one in five youth experience mental health problems. The primary purpose of this study was to examine the relationship among motor competence, health-related physical fitness and mental health outcomes in adolescents. A secondary goal was to test the direct and indirect effects of motor competence on adolescents’ mental health through health-related physical fitness. Participants were 279 adolescents (M_age = 12.49, SD = 0.89) recruited in the south-west region of the US Motor competence including volleyball, soccer, and ultimate Frisbee, were assessed using PE Metrics?. FITNESSGRAM® test battery was used to assess health-related physical fitness components. Students completed a survey measuring their depressive symptoms and health-related quality of life. Motor competence was significantly associated with components of health-related physical fitness (r ranged from ?0.15 to 0.38). The robust fit of the model supports the significant indirect effect of motor competence on mental health outcomes through health-related physical fitness (χ²/df = 39.92/25; CFI = 0.97; RMSEA = 0.046; 90% CI [0.02, 0.07]). The hypothesized conceptual model tested in this study provides insights into the potential interaction of motor competence and health-related physical fitness with adolescents’ mental health.     

Inter-rater and test–retest (between-sessions) reliability of the 4-Skills Scan for dutch elementary school children

In The Netherlands, the 4-Skills Scan is an instrument for physical education teachers to assess gross motor skills of elementary school children. Little is known about its reliability. Therefore, in this study the test–retest and inter-rater reliability was determined. Respectively, 624 and 557 Dutch 6- to 12-year-old children were analyzed for test re-test and inter-rater reliability. All tests took place within the school setting. The outcome measure was age-expected motor performance (in years). Results showed a small practice effect of .24 years for re-test sessions and assessment of motor skills was possible with acceptable precision (standard error of measurement = .67 years). Overall, intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) was .93 (95% confidence interval: .92–.95) for test–retest reliability and .97 for inter-rater reliability. For the repeated measures, the smallest detectable change (SDC) was 1.84 and limits of agreement were –1.60 and 2.08 years. It can be concluded that the 4-Skills Scan is a reliable instrument to assess gross motor skills in elementary school children.     

Test–retest reliability of the Tekscan® F-Scan® 7 in-shoe plantar pressure system during treadmill walking in healthy recreationally active individuals

In-shoe plantar pressure systems are commonly used in clinical and research settings to assess foot function during functional tasks. Recently, Tekscan® has updated their F-Scan® in-shoe plantar pressure system; however, this system’s test–retest reliability has not been established. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine the test–retest reliability of the F-Scan® 7 system in recreationally active individuals during treadmill walking. Seventeen healthy adults completed 2 sessions of treadmill walking. For each session, participants were fitted for shoes and pressure insoles and walked on a treadmill at a self-selected pace for 30 s. Following the sessions, the test–retest reliability peak pressure, pressure time integral, average pressure and pressure contact area over 4 regions of the foot (heel, mid-foot, forefoot and toes) was assessed by calculating intraclass coefficients (ICC 2,k) and coefficient of variation percentage (CoV%). Pressure contact area consistently had the highest ICCs and lowest CoV% (ICCs: 0.91–0.98; CoV%: 2.7–7.8%). Whereas, the forefoot and toe regions had the highest ICCs for all 4 measures (ICCs: 0.83–0.98; CoV%: 3.1–13.4%). During treadmill walking in healthy recreationally active individuals, the reliability of the new Tekscan F-Scan® ranged from poor to high and was dependent on the measure and region of the foot.     

Concurrent validity and test–retest reliability of a global positioning system (GPS) and timing gates to assess sprint performance variables

Abstract

There has been no previous investigation of the concurrent validity and reliability of the current 5 Hz global positioning system (GPS) to assess sprinting speed or the reliability of integrated GPS–accelerometer technology. In the present study, we wished to determine: (1) the concurrent validity and reliability of a GPS and timing gates to measure sprinting speed or distance, and (2) the reliability of proper accelerations recorded via GPS–accelerometer integration. Nineteen elite youth rugby league players performed two over-ground sprints and were simultaneously assessed using GPS and timing gates. The GPS measurements systematically underestimated both distance and timing gate speed. The GPS measurements were reliable for all variables of distance and speed (coefficient of variation [CV] = 1.62% to 2.3%), particularly peak speed (95% limits of agreement [LOA] = 0.00 ± 0.8 km · h^?1; CV = 0.78%). Timing gates were more reliable (CV = 1% to 1.54%) than equivalent GPS measurements. Accelerometer measurements were least reliable (CV = 4.69% to 5.16%), particularly for the frequency of proper accelerations (95% LOA = 1.00 ± 5.43; CV = 14.12%). Timing gates and GPS were found to reliably assess speed and distance, although the validity of the GPS remains questionable. The error found in accelerometer measurements indicates the limits of this device for detecting changes in performance.     

Influence of physical fitness on cognitive and academic performance in adolescents: A systematic review from 2005–2015

Background: The aim of this systematic review was to investigate the association of different components of physical fitness on cognitive performance (CP) and academic performance (AP) in adolescents, taking into account potential confounders. Method: Studies were identified in four databases (Pubmed, SportDiscus, Web of Science, and ProQuest) from January 2005 through to January 2015. A total of 21 articles met the inclusion criteria. Results: 8 studies showed association between physical fitness and CP, and 11 studies with AP. Cardiorespiratory fitness, speed-agility, motor coordination, and perceptual-motor skill are the highest measures associated with CP and AP. However, the findings on strength and flexibility are unclear. Finally, 62% of the 21 studies used confounders. The most controlled confounder were socioeconomic status, fatness, pubertal status, sex, and age. Conclusion: Fitness is associated with higher CP and AP. More research is needed in order to understand the causes of the differential effect of physical fitness components on CP and AP.     

Sport burnout inventory–Dual career form for student-athletes: Assessing validity and reliability in a Finnish sample of adolescent athletes

BackgroundThe pressure of pursuing an athletic career simultaneously with education may set adolescent student-athletes at risk for sport and school burnout. Although the 2 life domains of student-athletes are strongly intertwined, so far, there has not been an instrument for investigating sport burnout parallel to school burnout. The aim of the present study was to introduce a sport burnout measure for adolescents in a dual career context and investigate its validity and reliability by using confirmatory factor analysis.MethodsThe participants were 391 student-athletes (51% females) who filled in a questionnaire of sport burnout and background variables in the beginning of upper secondary school.ResultsA 3-factor model or a second-order-factor model described the data better and gave better reliability indices than a 1-factor model. The 3 dimensions of sport burnout were shown to be separate, but closely related constructs. Evidence for convergent and discriminant validity was obtained by correlating the 3 sport burnout dimensions with depressive symptoms, self-esteem, and sport task values.ConclusionThe results suggest that Sport Burnout Inventory–Dual Career Form (SpBI-DC) is a valid and reliable instrument for investigating sport burnout among adolescent student-athletes.     

Evaluation of the exercise workload of broadcast calisthenics for children and adolescents aged 11–17 years

Abstract

The aim of this study was to examine the exercise workload of the 3rd Series of National Broadcast Calisthenics for Elementary and Middle School Students. Altogether, 120 students aged 11–17 years were randomly selected from elementary and middle schools to participate in the study. Each participant performed a cycle ergometer test to obtain maximum oxygen uptake ([Vdot]O_2max) and maximum heart rate values. In the laboratory, oxygen uptake ([Vdot]O₂), metabolic equivalents (METs), and heart rate were recorded continuously throughout a calisthenics session performed by the participants. Ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) were also recorded. Throughout the calisthenics session, mean percentage of [Vdot]O₂ reserve varied from 30.7% to 41.2%, mean percentage of heart rate reserve from 39.0% to 56.9%, and mean RPE from 9.0 to 10.4. The mean energy cost during most of the segments across the four routines of calisthenics was significantly higher (P < 0.05) than 3.0 METs. In conclusion, the exercise workload of the 3rd Series of National Broadcast Calisthenics for Elementary and Middle School Students session varied from low to moderate. As part of a school-based physical activity intervention project, calisthenics would help to promote an active lifestyle and health in children and adolescents.     

Force–velocity property of leg muscles in individuals of different level of physical fitness

The present study explored the method of testing muscle mechanical properties through the linear force–velocity (F–V) relationships obtained from loaded vertical jumps. Specifically, we hypothesised that the F–V relationship parameters depicting the force, power, and velocity of the tested muscles will differ among individuals of different physical fitness. Strength trained, physically active, and sedentary male participants (N = 10 + 10 + 10; age 20–29 years) were tested on maximum countermovement and squat jumps where manipulation of external loads provided a range of F and V data. The observed F–V relationships of the tested leg muscles were approximately linear and mainly strong (median correlation coefficients ranged from 0.77 to 0.92; all p < 0.05), independently of either the tested group or the jump type. The maximum power revealed higher values in the strength trained than in the physically active and sedentary participants. This difference originated from the differences in F-intercepts, rather than from the V-intercepts. We conclude that the observed parameters could be sensitive enough to detect the differences among both the individuals of different physical fitness and various jump types. The present findings support using loaded vertical jumps and, possibly, other maximum performance multi-joint movements for the assessment of mechanical properties of active muscles.     

The importance of cohesion and enjoyment for the fitness improvement of 8–10-year-old children participating in a team and individual sport school-based physical activity intervention

This study investigates the enjoyment and cohesion of school children participating in a school-based high-intensity physical activity (PA) intervention. Both enjoyment and cohesion have been found to be important factors for adherence to regular physical and sport activity, an important outcome of PA interventions. The sample consisted of 300 pupils (mean age: 9.3 years; 52.7% female) assigned to a team sport intervention, an individual sport intervention, or a control group for 10 months. The Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale and Youth Sport Environment Questionnaire were used to measure enjoyment and cohesion. The Yo-Yo IR1C test determined fitness improvements. Results showed that enjoyment and cohesion (social) measured at the beginning of the intervention significantly predict fitness improvements achieved after 10 months. No differing developmental effects over time could be found in the intervention groups with regard to cohesion and enjoyment when comparing them to the control group. However, enjoyment and cohesion (social) significantly decreased in the groups that performed individual sports. Team sports seem to be more advantageous for the development of enjoyment and cohesion, which are both factors that positively impact the health outcomes of the intervention.     

Validity and reliability of a new method for measuring putting stroke kinematics using the TOMI® system

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to determine the validity and reliability of a new method for measuring three-dimensional (3D) putting stroke kinematics using the TOMI® device. A putting robot and a high-speed camera were used to simultaneously collect data for the validity evaluation. The TOMI® device, when used in conjunction with standard 3D coordinate data processing techniques, was found to be a valid and reliable method for measuring face angle, stroke path, putter speed, and impact spot at the moment of ball contact. The validity of the TOMI® measurement system was quantified using the 95% limits of agreement method for each aforementioned variable. The practical significance of each validity score was assessed by incorporating the maximum estimated measurement error into the stroke of the putting robot for 10 consecutive putts. All putts were executed from a distance of 4 m on a straight and flat synthetic putting surface. Since all putts were holed successfully, the measurement error for each variable was deemed to be negligible for the purposes of measuring putting stroke kinematics. The influence of key kinematic errors, at impact, on the outcome of a putt was also determined.     

The effect of football boot upper padding on dribbling and passing performance using a test–retest validated protocol

Touch/control football boots are reportedly designed for optimal passing and dribbling. Little research exists on the effect of boot design on touch/control performance and no validated protocol has been developed for assessing passing and dribbling from an equipment focus. This study aimed to assess the effect of upper padding on dribbling and passing performance using a test–retest reliable test setup. Eight university players performed a protocol of dribbling, short and long passing in football boots with 0 and 6 mm of upper padding (Poron foam). The protocol was completed twice; the 0-mm padding results were used for test–retest validation, while the 0-mm versus 6-mm padding results were used to investigate the effect of padding. Dribbling performance was assessed though completion time, number of touches applied and lateral deviation from cones and passing performance through ball velocity and offset from target. The protocol demonstrated good test–retest reliability and indicated no significant differences in any of the 12 performance variables between the 0- and 6-mm padded boots. These findings suggest an element of design freedom in the use of padding within football boot uppers without affecting dribbling or passing performance.     

The reliability of isoinertial force–velocity–power profiling and maximal strength assessment in youth

The purpose of this study was to quantify the inter-session reliability of force–velocity–power profiling and estimated maximal strength in youth. Thirty-six males (11–15 years old) performed a ballistic supine leg press test at five randomized loads (80%, 100%, 120%, 140%, and 160% body mass) on three separate occasions. Peak and mean force, power, velocity, and peak displacement were collected with a linear position transducer attached to the weight stack. Mean values at each load were used to calculate different regression lines and estimate maximal strength, force, velocity, and power. All variables were found reliable (change in the mean [CIM] = ? 1 to 14%; coefficient of variation [CV] = 3–18%; intraclass correlation coefficient [ICC] = 0.74–0.99), but were likely to benefit from a familiarization, apart from the unreliable maximal force/velocity ratio (CIM = 0–3%; CV = 23–25%; ICC = 0.35–0.54) and load at maximal power (CIM = ? 1 to 2%; CV = 10–13%; ICC = 0.26–0.61). Isoinertial force–velocity–power profiling and maximal strength in youth can be assessed after a familiarization session. Such profiling may provide valuable insight into neuromuscular capabilities during growth and maturation and may be used to monitor specific training adaptations.     

Are intensified physical education sessions able to elicit heart rate at a sufficient level to promote aerobic fitness in adolescents?

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of intensified physical education sessions on adolescents ages 11-16 years. They were divided into two experimental groups--high-intensity running group (HIRG) and high-intensity jumping group (HlJG)--and a control group (C). During the sessions, heart rate (HR) was monitored. There was no significant difference between mean HR for HIRG and HIJG, while the mean HR was significantly lower for C (p < .001). For both HIRG and HIJG, the mean HR was significantly higher for girls than for boys (p < .001). Our results suggested that these intensified physical education lessons require a high percentage of maximal HR in adolescents and can be used to improve aerobic fitness.