"动因——手段——目的"三模式理论中的动机和知觉控制浅析

根据斯金纳·埃伦提出的“动因———手段———目的”三模式理论和她的“能力系统”模式 ,分析了运动和锻炼心理学中与知觉控制有关的内容 ,即控制点、归因、自我效能、成就目标、自我决策和计划行为理论中的行为控制感 ,为将来这个领域中有关知觉控制的研究应该注意的方面提出了建议。     

少年田径运动员成就目标的发展特点

为探讨少年田径运动员成就目标的发展特点，对广西334名少年田径运动员的成就目标进行了分析。少年田径运动员的成就目标的性别主效应显著，女运动员的掌握目标高于男运动员，男运动员的成绩目标高于女运动员：训练年限主效应也达到了显著水平，随着训练年限的增加，掌握目标的发展呈下降趋势，成绩目标的发展呈上升趋势；成绩目标的运动等级主效应显著，三级运动员的成绩目标显著高于二级运动员；少年田径运动员的主导目标为掌握目标。结论：少年田径运动员的成就目标受后天环境影响较大。建议在培养少年田径运动员的成就目标定向时，应帮助运动员树立能力增长观，在运动训练过程中多设置掌握定向氛围。     

Predictive Role of Physical Education Motivation

In this study we examined adolescents’ physical activity (PA) stability as well as individual differences in PA across grades 7–9. In addition, we tested the predictive role of adolescents’ self-determination and goal orientations in physical education at grade 6 in relation to their PA development. Adolescents’ (N = 812) self-reported PA was measured five times and physical education motivation once. Results revealed a decreasing trajectory of PA, with individual differences diminishing over time. Although boys’ showed a consistently higher PA level, gender did not moderate the change in PA. Finally, self-determination and task orientation (boys only) predicted PA levels but did not predict change in PA.     

Implications of attachment theory for sport and physical activity research: conceptual links with achievement goal and peer-relationship models

This paper attempted to integrate the developmental literature on attachment theory with the achievement goal and peer-relationship literature that has been central to sport and physical activity research in recent decades. Attachment theory, achievement goal models, and sport peer-relationship frameworks are briefly reviewed and the conceptual links between the theories are explored. It is contended that attachment theory offers conceptually useful avenues of research related to the constructs of achievement goals, perceived motivational climate, and experiences of peer relationships in sport-related contexts. A brief discussion regarding potential caveats related to measurement of mental representations of attachment in social and social-cognitive research is also forwarded.     

Exploring self-talk and affective states in sport

In this study, we examined (1) the relationship between self-talk and affect and (2) the nature of motivating self-talk. Ninety high-school athletes completed the Affect Grid and the Self-Talk Grid before practice and competition. Significant positive second-order partial correlations of low to moderate strength offered support for a relationship between self-talk and affect. In addition, significant positive second-order partial correlations of moderate strength were found for a relationship between negative-positive self-talk and demotivating-motivating self-talk. An examination of scatter plots indicated that some athletes rated their self-talk as negative as well as being motivational. These findings lend support to the suggestion that negative self-talk may motivate some athletes.     

Challenges to Cognitive Bases for an Especial Motor Skill at the Regulation Baseball Pitching Distance

We tested expert baseball pitchers for evidence of especial skills at the regulation pitching distance. Seven college pitchers threw indoors to a target placed at 60.5 feet (18.44 m) and four closer and four further distances away. Accuracy at the regulation distance was significantly better than predicted by regression on the nonregulation distances (p < .02), indicating an especial skill effect emerged despite the absence of normal contextual cues. Self-efficacy data failed to support confidence as a mediating factor in especial skill effect. We concluded that cognitive theories fail to fully account for the patterns of observed data, and therefore theoretical explanations of the especial skills must address noncognitive aspects of motor learning and control.     

Reliability and Validity Evidence for Achievement Goal Models in High School Physical Education Settings

Although empirical research in academic areas provides support for both a 3-factor as well as a 4-factor achievement goal model, both models were proposed and tested with a collegiate sample. Little is known about the generalizability of either model with high school level samples. This study was designed to examine whether the 3-factor model (Mastery Goals, Performance-Approach Goals, and Performance-Avoidance Goals) or the 4-factor model (Mastery-Approach Goals, Mastery-Avoidance Goals, Performance-Approach Goals, and Performance-Avoidance Goals) is appropriate in high school physical education settings. The factorial validity of the models and internal consistency reliability were tested with confirmatory factor analysis, invariance testing, and tests of internal consistency across 2 samples. The results reveal that the items from the 4-factor achievement goal model can produce internally consistent and valid scores for high school students in physical education settings; the 4-factor model provides a better fit to the data than the 3-factor model. The multistep invariance analysis, however, reveals only metric invariance across 2 school samples.     

Influence of Social Goal Orientations and Peers on Unsportsmanlike Play

Abstract

The present study was designed to examine the influence of personal (i.e., social goal orientations or definitions of success that include interpersonal relationships) and situational (i.e., peer influence) factors on decisions surrounding unsportsmanlike play. Middle school students (ages 11–15 years) completed a measure to assess task, ego, and social goal orientations. Participants also read scenarios about unsportsmanlike actions and responded to questions tapping the intention to perform those actions. A series of hierarchical regression analyses revealed that in certain peer contexts, social goal orientations influenced unsportsmanlike play responses above and beyond the contribution of task and ego goal orientations. Results varied for boys and girls and provide support for including social goal orientations in achievement motivation research in the physical domain.     

Motivational predictors of prosocial and antisocial behaviour in football

Abstract

This study examined (a) the main and interactive effects of goal orientations and perceived motivational climate on prosocial and antisocial behaviour, and (b) whether number of seasons one has played for the team interacts with motivational climate in predicting prosocial and antisocial behaviour in association football. Participants were 325 male association football players, whose age ranged from 12 to 17 years. Athletes completed questionnaires measuring frequency of prosocial and antisocial behaviours in football, goal orientation, motivational climate and social desirability, and indicated the number of seasons they had played for their current team. Regression analyses revealed that task orientation and mastery climate were positive predictors of prosocial behaviour, whereas ego orientation and performance climate were positive predictors of antisocial behaviour. In addition, task orientation negatively predicted antisocial behaviour, while ego orientation negatively predicted prosocial behaviour. No significant interactions between task and ego orientation and mastery and performance motivational climate were found. Finally, mastery climate negatively predicted antisocial behaviour for those who had played many seasons for the team. In conclusion, strengthening task orientation and mastery climate and weakening ego orientation may enhance prosocial behaviour. However, for antisocial conduct to be eliminated from the context of association football, ego orientation and performance climate need to be tempered, as these constructs exert unique independent effects on antisocial behaviour.     

少年田径运动员成就目标对心理健康、运动成绩的影响

综合运用问卷调查法、文献资料法、数理统计法及以访谈法等方法，分析讨论了成就目标、心理健康与运动成绩的关系。结果表明：掌握目标与躯体化因子的相关达到显著水平；成绩目标与人际关系敏感因子、焦虑因子、敌对因子的相关达到显著水平；掌握目标与运动成绩存在显著的正相关；高成就目标定向组和高掌握目标定向组运动成绩的得分分别与低成就目标定向组存在非常显著差异，高成就目标定向组和高掌握目标定向组运动成绩的均分较高；心理健康总分，高掌握目标定向组与高成就目标定向组、高成绩目标定向组、低成就目标定向组均存在显著差异，高掌握目标定向组得分最低。因此认为，高掌握目标定向最有利于运动员的全面发展。建议在培养少年田径运动员的成就目标定向时，应帮助运动员树立能力增长观，在运动训练过程中多设置掌握定向氛．围。     

Perfectionism and training performance: The mediating role of other-approach goals

Recent research found perfectionistic strivings to predict performance in a novel basketball task among novice basketball players. The current study builds on this research by examining whether this is also the case for performance in a familiar basketball training task among experienced basketball players, and whether achievement goals mediated any observed relationships. Perfectionistic strivings, perfectionistic concerns, and 3?×?2 achievement goals were assessed prior to basketball training performance in 90 basketball players (mean age 20.9 years). Regression analyses showed that perfectionistic strivings predicted better performance. Furthermore, mediation analyses showed that other-approach goals (e.g. beliefs that one should and can outperform others) accounted for this relationship. The findings suggest that perfectionistic strivings may predict better performance in both novel and familiar athletic contexts. In addition, beliefs about the importance and ability to outperform others may explain this relationship.     

Sport imagery ability predicts trait confidence,and challenge and threat appraisal tendencies

Abstract

The present study investigated the interplay among athletes' sport imagery ability, trait confidence, and tendency to appraise situations as a challenge and threat. The potential mediating role of trait confidence was also tested. A total of 207 athletes (M _age =19.44; s=1.26; 90 female, 117 male) completed the Sport Imagery Ability Questionnaire to assess ease of imaging skill, strategy, goal, affect and mastery imagery, the confidence subscale of the Competitive Trait Anxiety Inventory to measure trait confidence, and the Cognitive Appraisal Scale to assess tendencies to appraise sport situations as a challenge and as a threat. Structural equation modelling supported a model wherein mastery and goal imagery ability both positively predicted confidence, which in sequence positively predicted challenge appraisal and negatively predicted threat appraisal tendency. Partial support was found for confidence mediating the relationship between mastery imagery ability and appraisal tendencies. In addition, ease of imaging mastery and affect imagery directly predicted challenge appraisal tendency (positive direction), and ease of imaging mastery imagery directly predicted threat appraisal tendency (negative direction). Results highlight the importance of motivational imagery ability and the need to assess athletes' ability to image different content.     

Effect of environmental feedbacks on pacing strategy and affective load during a self-paced 30 min cycling time trial

The purpose of this study was to analyze the pacing strategy and its affective consequences during self-paced cycling time trials (TT) performed at different severity of hypoxia. Eight competitive cyclists performed five 30 min self-paced TTs at their best performance in the following conditions: 1) normobaric normoxia (NN_SL); 2) normobaric hypoxia under two simulated altitudes: 2000 m (NH₂₀₀₀) and 3500 m (NH₃₅₀₀) and 3) normobaric hypoxia but the cyclists were deceived and thought to be at sea level for 2000 m (DecNH₂₀₀₀) and 3500 m (DecNH₃₅₀₀). Power Output (PO), oxygen uptake (VO₂), and blood lactate concentration ([La]) were recorded to assess exercise intensity and physiological adaptations. The rate of perceived exertion (RPE) and pleasure were measured with a CR10 Borg scale to evaluate the affective load (AL). PO and VO₂ decreased with the severity of hypoxia but no significantly difference on performance was measured between deceived and real conditions, except for pacing strategy. The started intensity depends on the exercise expectations, but PO was rapidly adjusted with the physiological constraints and the rate of increase of RPE. Finally, AL did not reach maximal values so that the athletes sustained a physiological and emotional reserve to perform a final spurt.     

Examining the relationships between challenge and threat cognitive appraisals and coaching behaviours in football coaches

Previous research demonstrates that sports coaching is a stressful activity. This article investigates coaches’ challenge and threat cognitive appraisals of stressful situations and their impact on coaching behaviour, using Blascovich and Mendes’ (2000) biopsychosocial model as a theoretical framework. A cross-sectional correlational design was utilised to examine the relationships between irrational beliefs (Shortened general attitude and belief scale), challenge and threat appraisals (Appraisal of life events scale), and coaching behaviours (Leadership scale for sports) of 105 professional football academy coaches. Findings reveal significant positive associations between challenge appraisals and social support, and between threat appraisals and autocratic behaviour, and a significant negative association between threat appraisals and positive feedback. Results also show that higher irrational beliefs are associated with greater threat, and lesser challenge cognitive appraisals. However, no associations were revealed between irrational beliefs and challenge cognitive appraisals. Additionally, findings demonstrate a positive relationship between age and training and instruction. Results suggest that practitioners should help coaches to appraise stressful situations as a challenge to promote positive coaching behaviours.     

Feeling states during exercise: Influence of individual differences in perceived evaluative threat

Abstract

The present study is designed to examine the influence of individual differences in perceived evaluative threat and baseline responses on changes in feeling states experienced during acute exercise in college-age women with high social physique anxiety. Thirty women with high social physique anxiety completed acute bouts of stationary cycling at either a self-selected or imposed intensity in both naturalistic fitness centre and laboratory environments. Multivariate analysis of changes in feeling states during exercise yielded a significant baseline×perceived evaluative threat×intensity interaction during exercise in the naturalistic fitness centre environment. Decomposition of this interaction revealed that, within the naturalistic environment, women with the least favourable baseline feeling states who perceived the lowest amount of evaluative threat during exercise demonstrated the greatest improvements in affect during self-selected intensity exercise. These findings suggest that, among women with high social physique anxiety, changes in feeling states reported during exercise are influenced by an interaction between baseline affective responses, the intensity of exercise, and environmentally induced perceptions of evaluative threat.     

Functional impact of emotions on athletic performance: Comparing the IZOF model and the directional perception approach

A plausible explanation for the ancient long jump records from Greek antiquity is sought on the basis of pictorial and written sources, and corroborated with practical tests. Ancient sources report that athletes jumped more than 15?m with weights in their hands, which enabled them to jump further than without these weights. It is proposed that the ancient Greek long jump was a continuous succession of five standing broad jumps, in which the landing phase of one jump was also the countermovement for the next jump. Four trained athletes jumped further with (14.64?±?0.76?m, range 13.64?–?15.63?m) than without weights (13.88?±?0.70?m, range 12.60?–?14.75?m; P = 0.001). These results show that this technique is executable, fits with ancient written and pictorial sources, and allows trained modern athletes to jump distances well over 15?m. The extra distance jumped when using weights may be due to changes in the position of the jumper's centre of mass at take-off and at landing, and an increase in take-off velocity stemming from several biomechanical mechanisms.     

浅谈羽毛球击高远球技术及训练方法

羽毛球击高远球是羽毛球后场三大技术的基础,是后场进攻的的主要手段,对于初学者来说该技术比较难掌握,球击到对方场区底线的成功率都很低,笔者阐述了该技术的具体要求并总结影响高远球击球效果的关键环节,提出了关键环节的学习和改进方法。     

排球教学中学生负性情绪产生的原因及调控

在排球教学中，由于排球运动具有高度的技巧性和技术结构复杂的特点，难免会使学生产生各种不良情绪，从而影响学习的动作质量和教学效果。分析了引起负性情绪产生的各种因素，并提出了调控学生练习情绪变化的有效措施。     

An examination of multiple goals in children's physical education: Motivational effects of goal profiles and the role of perceived climate in multiple goal development

Abstract

In this paper, I present data from two studies that sought to examine multiple achievement goals in the context of children's physical education (PE). Study 1 examined the links that multiple-goal profiles (i.e. mastery/performance-approach/performance-avoidance goals) for PE had with self-determined motivation, affective patterns and levels of extracurricular sporting activity in a sample of 193 Year 7 pupils. Results suggested that children endorsing high mastery/high performance-approach/high performance-avoidance, high mastery/high performance-approach/low performance-avoidance, or high mastery/ low performance-approach/low performance-avoidance profiles typically exhibited the most adaptive motivational responses. In contrast, children endorsing a low mastery/high performance-approach/high performance-avoidance profile typically experienced more maladaptive motivational outcomes. Study 2 examined the development of multiple achievement goals over two terms of PE in conjunction with retrospective perceptions of the motivational climate in the sample. The results of analysis of variance suggested that children exposed to a consistent high mastery/low performance climate experienced decreased performance-avoidance goals and maintained high levels of mastery goals for PE. In contrast, children exposed to a consistent low mastery/high performance climate experienced increased performance-avoidance goals and decreased mastery goals for PE.     

自我效能感在网球运动中的作用及培养

将自我效能理论在网球运动中的作用进行分析,发现自我效能感对网球比赛具有重大影响,特别是具有相近网球技能的运动员,在比赛中表现的出色程度不同,甚至相差悬殊;突出强调了自我效能感在调节网球比赛中具有极其重要的作用;并从自我效能感在网球比赛中的重要作用出发,分析影响网球运动员自我效能的因素及其提高方法。