Effects of prior social experience on agonistic responding by Siamese fighting fish (Betta splendens)

The role of prior social experience in maleBetta agonistic behavior was investigated in two experiments. Fish were either paired with an opponent until dominance was established naturally (Experiment 1) or given prior combat experience with a known aggressive or nonaggressive opponent (Experiment 2). The effects of prior social experience were then observed both in additional paired encounters and in some noncombat agonistic situations. The paired-encounter data indicate thatBetta attack aggressive opponents more than nonaggressive ones and rarely attack opponents once they have submitted. In contrast to attacking, these fish do not show a significant decrease in displays once their opponent has submitted, nor do they display differentially to aggressive and nonaggressive opponents. The noncombat agonistic-situation data indicate that prior social experience affects both the preference of fish for viewing other conspecifics and the waning of display behaviors. These results suggest that submissive and nonaggressive behaviors can inhibit attacks but not displays byBetta, and they emphasize the necessity of controlling for prior social experience when studying aggressive behavior.     

Approach tendency and threat display as related to social status of Siamese fighting fish,Betta splendens

Forty-eight maleBetta splendens were assigned to three groups of 16 (eight pairs) each. In two of the groups, pairs of fish were first allowed to fight until a dominance-subordinance relationship was established. Then each subject was tested on measures of time spent in approach and threat display toward either (1) its own pair member, with which it was experienced and familiar (Group EF), or toward (2) another combat-experienced fish, with which it was unfamiliar (Group EU). A third group of inexperienced and unfamiliar individuals (Group IU) were first exposed to their own mirror images and then tested for approach and threat-display duration. Pairs of these fish were then allowed to fight until dominance was determined. The three major findings were: (a) Dominant subjects approached and displayed significantly more than subordinates in all three groups; (2) Dominant subjects of Group IU did not differ significantly from dominants in the other two groups with respect to time spent in approach and display; and (3) Fish exposed to mirrors prior to combat required significantly fewer sessions to establish dominance than fish not receiving mirror exposure. Results suggest that dominant fish can be distinguished on the basis of their approach tendency and threat-display scores prior to actual physical combat. An habituation model of dominance determination was proposed.     

Prospective elementary teachers' prior knowledge about light

This article reports on a study that was designed to describe prospective elementary teachers' prior verbal and diagrammatic knowledge about various aspects of light, seeing, shadows, and mirror images. Data were collected through individual interviews using simple apparatus (light bulb, objects, screen, and plane mirror). Included are some inferences about how students' ideas may have emerged from their interpretations of everyday experiences. The article concludes with a section that provides an example of a conceptual change instructional strategy that was based on the research results reported here.     

Social responsiveness and physical space as determinants of agonistic behavior inBetta splendens

Two experiments examined the conditions under whichBetta agonistic responding occurs by manipulating physical space and the species and social responsiveness of an opponent. In Experiment 1, both the species (conspecific or nonconspecific) and the aggressiveness (aggressive or nonaggressive) of the opponent were manipulated. The results indicated that agonistic behavior was greater with both conspecifics and aggressive opponents. Experiment 2 examined the effects of physical space and social responsiveness of the opponent on intraspecific aggressive behavior. An inverse relationship was found between physical space and the number of attacks directed toward the opponent. The results of both experiments also indicated thatBetta tend to attack aggressive opponents more than nonaggressive ones. It is suggested thatBetta aggress either when the individual animal is threatened or when physical space is limited.     

Touching Up Mental Rotation: Effects of Manual Experience on 6‐Month‐Old Infants’ Mental Object Rotation

In this study, 6‐month‐olds' ability to mentally rotate objects was investigated using the violation‐of‐expectation paradigm. Forty infants watched an asymmetric object being moved straight down behind an occluder. When the occluder was lowered, it revealed the original object (possible) or its mirror image (impossible) in one of five orientations. Whereas half of the infants were allowed to manually explore the object prior to testing, the other half was only allowed to observe the object. Results showed that infants with prior hands‐on experience looked significantly longer at the mirror image, while infants with observational experience did not discriminate between test events. These findings demonstrate that 6‐month‐olds' mental rotations benefit from manual exploration, highlighting the importance of motor experience for cognitive performance.     

艾丽斯·默多克小说《钟》之镜像解读

英国著名女作家艾丽斯·默多克在其小说《钟》里建构了多重镜像,女主人公多拉辗转于由自我之镜、他人之镜、空间之镜等构成的“镜城”之中,经历了自我迷失到自我重建的艰难历程.依据拉康的精神分析逻辑,多拉镜像式生存的本质只是一种“非我”的他者生存.默多克构建了以“关注”为中心的道德哲学,为陷于拉康悲剧论断中的人们带来了重生的希望     

憔悴的容颜自怜的心态——论宋代女性文学的镜中影像

宋代女性文学镜中影像虽有健康愉悦的,但更多是憔悴忧愁的,色调灰暗、抑郁,具有自我嫌恶与自怜自恋的女性特质。镜子是宋代女作家自我体认、自我爱恋、人生成长与生命存在的一个重要部分,是女性自我救赎的一种方式与途径。这与男作家摄取的凄楚动人的女性镜中影像有着质的区别。男性因扮演女性抒写主体的角色,无法去除投注其中的男性感情欲求,也就意味着很难与女性抒情主体水乳交融,映照出真实的女性镜中影像。     

论传记电影的完整镜像

通过电影镜像理论的探讨,提出西方优秀传记电影是更加完整的镜的观点。西方优秀传记电影的真实性、精神多层次性和解放性,成为其更完整的镜的三个维度。传记电影的观影体验可以延伸到现实之中,传主形象成为可以触摸的东西,传记电影具备深刻的心理属性,这些都是传记电影和普通电影的不同,导致西方优秀传记电影成为了深富人文价值和美学含量的电影形态。     

Do Infants Use Their Own Images to Locate Objects Reflected in a Mirror?

The ability of infants to locate a toy from a mirror reflection was investigated in 3 experiments. In the first, it was found that a minority of 22-month-old infants turned to locate the toy that was the source of the reflection, and that localization of the toy occurred regardless of whether the infants' own image was visible in the mirror. The results of 2 further experiments indicated that younger infants aged 14 and 18 months rarely use mirror information to locate a toy. When they do so, they also turn whether or not images of themselves are visible. It is concluded that tasks involving the localization of objects or events from mirror images are not direct indices of self-recognition. Rather, they indicate the skill of infants in using the mirror as a perceptual tool.     

从《古镜记》看镜子文学意象的流变

本文试图以《古镜记》为参照和枢纽,梳理镜子文学意象的发展脉络,初步分析镜子的三个基本意象层面：幼惩、镇邪和闺怨象征,指出劝惩和闺怨是传统的镜子意象功能,镇邪功能的出现则是中外文化交融的结果,《古镜记》是这一交融的产物,而《红楼梦》将镇邪和劝惩功能有机地结合,熔铸成包孕文化底蕴和哲学意蕴的“风月宝鉴”。     

咏春拳技术的传承与异化研究

运用文献资料法和专家访谈法对延续百年的咏春拳传承和练习方法进行分析,研究得出影响咏春技术主要有：老师纠正、自我检查、器械纠偏、竞技比赛等,从而梳理出咏春拳传播过程中对于技术的传承方式以及技术在现代体育竞技尝试下发生异化。结论：老师教习、对镜练习、木人桩以及黐手训练是咏春拳传承中延续着固有技术标准;另一方面,现代竞技体育规则下咏春拳竞赛促使对咏春技术在片面理解的基础上进行竞争导致咏春技术开始“异化”。     

关于平面镜成像问题的讨论

本文主要研究平面镜对物的成像问题,利用光学的反射定律、光路的可逆性原理,以及物点和像点的对称性讨论平面镜成完整像的条件及二面角平面镜成完整像的数目．     

Epistemological beliefs and self-regulated learning with hypertext

This study investigated the relationship between epistemological beliefs, prior domain knowledge and self-regulated learning. Biology students (n?=?25) and humanities students (n?=?26) who varied in their epistemological beliefs learned with a hierarchical hypertext about the topic of genetic fingerprinting. During their learning processes, logfiles and questionnaire data were collected. Results indicate that students do metacognitively calibrate their learning process to the complexity of the presented learning material, e.g. by processing more complex deeper-level nodes longer. Furthermore, these calibration processes were significantly related to epistemological beliefs. For example, more ‘sophisticated’ epistemological beliefs were associated with processing more nodes, whereas more ‘naïve’ beliefs were related to spending more time on single nodes. Both effects were especially pronounced on deeper hierarchical hypertext levels. Prior domain knowledge also had an impact, especially on comprehensibility ratings: biology students considered all nodes more comprehensible than humanities students. Additionally, epistemological beliefs as well as prior domain knowledge were also significantly associated with the learning outcome: for example, more prior domain knowledge led to significantly higher learning outcome.     

Dynamics of mirror writing compared to conventional writing in typical preliterate children

In left-to-right writing cultures, spontaneous mirror writing of letters and digits in preliterate children appears more frequently on left-than right-facing characters. A compelling theory drawn on neuropsychological evidence of mirror generalization suggests that children resort to a right-orienting/writing rule when learning to write. The aim of the present study was to conceptually replicate and specify recent findings (Fischer, 2017a) on the predominant contribution of writing directionality to mirror writing in preliterate children. A training study was designed to compare on-line production of conventional versus mirror writing of 4-to-5 year-old French children (n?=?30). Over a 4-week period, children were taught to write from memory words and digits. During a subsequent writing-from-memory task, a spatial constraint (Cornell, 1985) was imposed to elicit paired conventional and mirror writing of the words/digits. Spatial and kinematic data were recorded through the use of a digital pen. The results indicate a main contribution of writing directionality to letter and digit reversals. Furthermore, kinematic equivalence between conventional and mirror writing supports the neurological mirror generalization process in children. Overall, these results constitute a further illustration that the manifestation of mirror writing in typically developing children is culture-bound.     

透过“他者”之镜穿越“自我”成长的迷宫——刘东新作《镜宫》解读

《镜宫》以“镜子”和“迷宫”的双重隐喻,讲述了主人公在青春成长过程中透过“他者”之镜,成就“自我”认同的故事。小说为主人公设置了四组镜像,分别是勇气、信任、爱情和死亡。主人公在每组镜像中经历的人生,都是成长中的一次蜕变,在看似虚幻的故事背后,却抵达现实深处,最终帮助其建构了新的自我,走出成长的迷宫。     

Mirror-image stimulation and short separations in stumptail monkeys

Two experiments examined the responses of infant stumptail macaques (Macaco arctoides) to mirror-image stimulation (MIS) during short social separations. Overall, infants living in pairs showed agitation when separated from their partners, but were calmer when the partner, an unfamiliar peer, or their own mirror image was visible. MIS elicited more facial expressions than the familiar peer, and more affiliative contact than an unfamiliar peer. In contrast, infants reared in a group were not calmed during separations either by an unfamiliar peer or by MIS, and they exhibited some negative reactions to the mirror. Social responsiveness to MIS varies with the social background of the subjects.     

Group outcome: The relationship between group learning outcome,attributional style,academic achievement,and self-concept

Six classes of grade seven students (N = 181) participated in field research which explored the consequences of group outcome (successful, unsuccessful) for individuals learning mathematics cooperatively using Student Teams-Achievement Divisions. In addition, we explored the effects of within-class prior mathematics achievement (low, low-medium, high-medium, high) as well as attributional style (learned-helpless, mastery-oriented). The dependent variables were mathematics achievement, causal attributions, and self-concept. There were two interactions: Group Outcome × Attributional Style on achievement, and Within-Class Prior Mathematics Achievement × Group Outcome on achievement and self-concept. Learned-helpless students from unsuccessful groups learned significantly less than learned-helpless students from successful groups. Low prior achievement students from unsuccessful groups learned significantly less than low prior achievers from successful groups. In contrast, there was no significant relationship between group outcome and individual post-test achievement for mastery-oriented students or for students high in prior within-class achievement.     

Short-term changes in responsiveness to models inBetta splendens

In an experiment attempting a detailed analysis of the habituation of aggression in blue male Siamese fighting fish, the fish viewed their mirror images for varying lengths of time, and then the duration of gill-cover erection was measured during a 60-sec presentation of a simplified model. Tests were separated by 24 h. Responsiveness was lower on the first day of testing than on any subsequent day. There was a peak of responsiveness to a blue model following 5-sec mirror exposure, with a decline in responsiveness after longer mirror exposures. Mirror exposure did not affect responsiveness to a green model. These results suggest that there are incremental and decremental effects of responding in this situation, both of which are stimulus-specific.     

探照生命存在的通道 ——论萧红小说的"镜窗"意象

“镜”与“窗”作为艺术代码,在萧红小说中具有深刻的意蕴,镜窗的破碎和寒凉特征隐喻着生命存在的绝望和恐惧。小说中镜窗意象携带着丰富的文化密码,蕴含了萧红创造性直觉的加工和改造;镜窗意象也是萧红将生命体验中的被弃情结移情于其中的艺术结晶,窗与镜的边缘性与异质性,与萧红自觉退居边缘保持精神独立的价值取向内在一致。     

What Happens With Comparison Processes When “the Other” is Very Similar? Academic Self-Concept Formation in Twins

According to the internal/external frame of reference (I/E) model (Marsh, 1986), individuals’ academic self-concept is strongly influenced by comparing their achievement in one domain with their achievement in other domains and with the achievement of others. Research has typically found contrast effects such that high-achieving others have a negative effect on students’ academic self-concept. Yet, what happens if the “other” is somebody very similar to oneself as in the case of monozygotic twins? We postulate and examine the mirror effect, which means that rather than serving as a contrast, the effect of the co-twin’s achievement parallels the effect of a monozygotic twin’s own achievement on academic self-concept. We used data from two school-aged cohorts (11- and 17-year-olds) from a representative sample (N = 4,202) of monozygotic and dizygotic twins in Germany. We regressed twins’ math and German self-concepts on their own and their co-twins’ mathematics and German achievement. Internal and external comparison effects as postulated in the I/E model were replicated for both monozygotic and dizygotic twins across both age groups. In line with our hypothesis, the mirror effect was found in monozygotic twins only: Co-twins’ achievement and twins’ own achievement showed a parallel pattern of positive effects on academic self-concept within each domain and negative effects on academic self-concept between domains, duplicating the I/E pattern. The mirror effect tended to be more pronounced for older monozygotic twins. We argue that the mirror effect is likely caused by high interpersonal similarity and constitutes a rare exception to the broad generalizability of contrast effects as assumed in the I/E model.