Partial reinforcement effect: The expectancy of reward on nonreward trials

In order to determine the importance of the development of expectancy of reward prior to partial reward trials; rats were given 20 continuously reinforced trials prior to 20 partially reinforced trials (CRF-PRF) and compared to Ss given only 20 partially reinforced trials (PRF). Control groups received 20 or 40 continuously reinforced trials (CRF-20, CRF-40) to determine the effect of differing numbers of acquisition trials. Results showed that terminal acquisition differences were minimal in the run segment of the alley and that Group CRF-PRF was more resistant to extinction than Group PRF, and both were more resistant to extinction than the CRF-20 and CRF-40 groups, which did not differ from each other. These results were interpreted as supporting the notion that the expectancy of reward on nonreward trials during partial reinforcement acquisition is a determiner of the magnitude of the partial reinforcement extinction effect.     

The effect of intensity of intermittent punishment in acquisition on resistance to extinction of an approach response

In a transfer of persistence paradigm, intensity of shock employed as intermittent punishment during the acquisition of a food-motivated instrumental response was manipulated. While intensities that increased response time during acquisition did increase resistance to extinction, an intensity that had no punishing effect did not increase persistence. The results indicated that there is both a lower and an upper limit to the transfer of an approach response from s_p to S_f and that these limits should be determined by behavioral rather than intensity measures.     

The effect of intensity and frequency of intermittent punishment in acquisition on resistance to extinction of an approach response in the rat

Rats trained to make an approach response with either nonreward or 150- or 175-V shock occurring on 2, 3, or 4 of 6 daily trials showed greater resistance to extinction than continuously reinforced-unpunished controls. Persistence during extinction was a function of both the type and the frequency of response-contingent event in acquisition. The significant interaction of these two factors was best interpreted as a result of the counterconditioning of the approach response (Amsel, 1972) to anticipatory conditions which varied in similarity to the frustrative nonreward of extinction.     

论行政处罚中单位证明的证据效力

单位证明在行政处罚中经常被作为证据使用,但是其效力如何,就存在较大争议。本文认为对单位证明的证据效力不能够一概而论,应该分形成于事前的单位证明和形成于事后的单位证明两种不同的情况分别对待。     

贪污贿赂罪的财产刑完善

贪污贿赂罪属于广义上的经济犯罪,在自由刑的缺陷难以完善的情况下,应考虑扩大没收财产刑的适用,同时引进罚金刑,从而解决自由刑不足和赃款难收缴的现状。     

刑罚个别化实现的含义及其基本特征

刑罚个别化实现是国家通过刑罚制定个别化、刑罚裁量个别化和刑罚执行个别化,制定、裁量和执行与刑罚本质要求相一致并体现刑罚目的和犯罪人个别情况的刑罚,它除具有刑罚所具有的特征以外,还具有个别性、完整性、统一性、渐进性等基本特征。     

Approach and escape to conspecific odors of reward and nonreward in rats

A three-compartment box was used, and a reward odor, or nonreward (extinction) odor, produced by another rat, was present in the middle compartment. Two control odor procedures were also used. The results showed that rats will approach a location in which another rat has previously been given reward more rapidly than they will escape from that location, but showed the opposite effect when the odor was produced by a rat undergoing extinction. The mere presence of an odor associated with another rat had the effect of producing much slower locomotion as compared to a no-odor control condition.     

胡性能小说世界里的罪与罚

通过对胡性能小说的具体分析,认为罪与罚是胡性能小说最重要的主题。并由此进一步探讨了胡性能创作的特点和意义,尤其强调了其作品中的精神分析特质和向后看的时间哲学。     

Transfer between nonreward and delay of reward following minimal acquisition training

Four groups of rats were given six acquisition trials under continuous reward, continuous delay of reward, partial reward, or partial delay of reward, following which all Ss received continuous delay. It was found that the partial reward and the partial delay of reward groups were significantly more persistent during the shift phase than the continuous reward group. No differences were found over trials between either the two partial groups or between each one and the continuous delay group.     

Aversive conditioning of naturally produced reward and nonreward odors in rats

Past experiments have reported that rats encountering reward (R) or nonreward (N) goal events emit odors that can be utilized as discriminative stimuli for instrumental behavior by conspecifics. In the present study, thirsty male rats were aversively conditioned by ingestional toxicosis to R and N odors, and their suppression of water consumption in the presence of these odors was measured. Thirsty trained donors were placed into chambers containing R or N goal events to generate, respectively, the R or N odors. Test animals were given eight differential conditioning trials (four with one odor as CS+; four with the other as CS?), involving placement into an odorcontaining chamber with water available, followed by a LiCl injection on CS+ trials. Animals tested in their CS+ odor consumed significantly less water than did CS? and control subjects. Both R and N odors were conditioned by aversive means and readily discriminable from each other. This represents the first laboratory demonstration of aversive conditioning of such naturally produced odors, and it suggests that aversive conditioning may be useful in the study of odorous emissions generally. Implications for innate meanings of R and N odors are discussed.     

Gendering corporal punishment: beyond the discourse of human rights

In the last few years the Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children has been gathering momentum, with a submission to The United Nations Secretary General’s study on violence against children the most recent addition to the cause. Nevertheless, corporal punishment in schools is still condoned in many countries and its practice persists even where it is now illegal. However, it is usually discussed within a gender‐‘neutral’ human rights framework rather than being more usefully considered as a gendered practice, pivotal in sustaining the gender regimes of schools. Drawing primarily on an ethnographic study in four junior secondary schools in Botswana, in conjunction with other related studies in Sub‐Saharan Africa, it is argued that corporal punishment is gendered at the level of both policy and practice. Female and male students and teachers understand and experience the ‘giving’ and ‘receiving’ of corporal punishment differently as gender interacts with, and often takes precedence over, age and authority relations. Understanding corporal punishment as a gendered practice has important implications for how its persistence in schools might be more successfully addressed as part of the current drive to achieve the Millennium Development and Education for All Goals in relation to universal primary education and gender equality.     

Attenuation of the CS-preexposure effect after a retention interval in preweanling rats

The effects of flavor preexposure and retention interval were assessed in 6- and 12-day-old rats. Conditioned aversions to a flavor appeared at both ages. The conditioning of the younger pups was unaffected by conditioned stimulus (CS) preexposure and was not evident after a 10-day retention interval. For the 12-day-old rats, preexposure to either the flavor CS or a different flavor attenuated aversion strength when the rats were tested soon after conditioning. Other 12-day-old rats that were tested 10 days after conditioning also expressed substantial aversions, but with a retention interval of this length, the aversions were equivalent for animals preexposed to the CS and those not preexposed before conditioning. This loss of the CS-preexposure effect over a long interval, which has also been observed in adult rats, identifies the locus of this effect as postacquisition and perhaps at the stage of memory retrieval.