Longer-term effects of minimalist shoes on running performance,strength and bone density: A 20-week follow-up study*

This study investigated whether male runners improve running performance, running economy, ankle plantar flexor strength, and alter running biomechanics and lower limb bone mineral density when gradually transitioning to using minimalist shoes for 100% of weekly running. The study was a planned follow-up of runners (n?=?50) who transitioned to minimalist or conventional shoes for 35% of weekly structured training in a previous 6-week randomised controlled trial. In that trial, running performance and economy improved more with minimalist shoes than conventional shoes. Runners in each group were instructed to continue running in their allocated shoe during their own preferred training programme for a further 20 weeks while increasing allocated shoe use to 100% of weekly training. At the 20-week follow-up, minimalist shoes did not affect performance (effect size: 0.19; p?=?0.218), running economy (effect size: ≤?0.24; p?≥?0.388), stride rate or length (effect size: ≤?0.12; p?≥?0.550), foot strike (effect size: ≤?0.25; p?≥?0.366), or bone mineral density (effect size: ≤?0.40; p?≥?0.319). Minimalist shoes increased plantar flexor strength more than conventional shoes when runners trained with greater mean weekly training distances (shoe*distance interaction: p?=?0.036). After greater improvements with minimalist shoes during the initial six weeks of a structured training programme, increasing minimalist shoe use from 35% to 100% over 20 weeks, when runners use their own preferred training programme, did not further improve performance, running economy or alter running biomechanics and lower limb bone mineral density. Minimalist shoes improved plantar flexor strength more than conventional shoes in runners with greater weekly training distances.     

Effects of replica running shoes upon external forces and muscle activity during running

Abstract

Twelve participants ran (9 km · h^?1) to test two types of running shoes: replica and original shoes. Ground reaction force, plantar pressure and electromyographic activity were recorded. The shoes were tested randomly and on different days. Comparisons between the two experimental conditions were made by analysis of variance (ANOVA) test (P ≤ 0.05). The time to first peak, loading rate of the first peak and impulse of the first 75 ms of stance were significantly different between the shoes (P ≤ 0.05), revealing an increase of impact forces for the replica shoes. The peak plantar pressure values were significantly higher (P ≤ 0.05) when wearing replica shoes. During running, the contact area was significantly smaller (P ≤ 0.05) for the replica shoe. The electromyographic activity of the analysed muscles did not show changes between the two shoes in running. These findings suggest that the use of replica running shoes can increase the external load applied to the human body, but may not change the muscle activity pattern during locomotion. This new mechanical situation may increase the risk of injuries in these movements.     

Effects of forefoot bending stiffness of badminton shoes on agility,comfort perception and lower leg kinematics during typical badminton movements

This study investigated whether an increase in the forefoot bending stiffness of a badminton shoe would positively affect agility, comfort and biomechanical variables during badminton-specific movements. Three shoe conditions with identical shoe upper and sole designs with different bending stiffness (Flexible, Regular and Stiff) were used. Elite male badminton players completed an agility test on a standard badminton court involving consecutive lunges in six directions, a comfort test performed by a pair of participants conducting a game-like practice trial and a biomechanics test involving a random assignment of consecutive right forward lunges. No significant differences were found in agility time and biomechanical variables among the three shoes. The players wearing the shoe with a flexible forefoot outsole demonstrated a decreased perception of comfort in the forefoot cushion compared to regular and stiffer conditions during the comfort test (p < 0.05). The results suggested that the modification of forefoot bending stiffness would influence individual perception of comfort but would not influence performance and lower extremity kinematics during the tested badminton-specific tasks. It was concluded that an optimisation of forefoot structure and materials in badminton shoes should consider the individual’s perception to maximise footwear comfort in performance.     

Cushioning and lateral stability functions of cloth sport shoes

In this study, we evaluated the protective functions of cloth sport shoes, including cushioning and lateral stability. Twelve male students participated in the study (mean ± s: age 12.7 ± 0.4 years, mass 40.7 ± 5.9 kg, height 1.50 ± 0.04 m). Cloth sport shoes, running shoes, basketball shoes, cross-training shoes, and barefoot conditions were investigated in random sequence. Human pendulum and cutting movement tests were used to assess cushioning performance and lateral stability, respectively. For cushioning, the running shoes (2.06 body weight, BW) performed the best, while the cross-training shoes (2.30 BW) and the basketball shoes (2.37 BW) both performed better than the cloth sport shoes (2.55 BW) and going barefoot (2.63 BW). For the lateral stability test, range of inversion–eversion was found to be from 3.6 to 4.9°, which was far less than that for adult participants (> 20°). No significant differences were found between conditions. All conditions showed prolonged durations from foot-strike to maximum inversion (66–95 ms), which was less vigorous than that for adult participants ( < 40 ms) and was unlikely to evoke intrinsic stability failure. In conclusion, the cloth sport shoe showed inferior cushioning capability but the same lateral stability as the other sports shoes for children.     

Maximalist shoes do not alter performance or joint mechanical output during the countermovement jump

ABSTRACT

This study examined potential differences between maximally cushioned (MAX) shoes and standard cushioned (STND) shoes during countermovement vertical jump (CMVJ) performance. Twenty-one males (23[2] y; 86.5[15.4] kg; 179.8[6.3] cm) completed eight jumps each in MAX and STND shoes while three-dimensional kinematic and kinetic data were collected. Paired-samples t-tests (α = 0.05) and Cohen’s d effect sizes (ES) were used to compare the following variables: vertical jump displacement, jump time, hip, knee and ankle joint angles at the start of the countermovement, the end of the unloading phase, the end of the eccentric phase, and at takeoff, peak joint power, and the joint contributions to total lower extremity work during the eccentric and concentric phases. The ankle was more dorsiflexed at the end of the countermovement in the MAX shoe (p = 0.002; ES = 0.55) but greater plantarflexion occurred in the STND shoes at takeoff (p = 0.028; ES = 0.56). No other differences were observed. The result of this study suggests that unique ankle joint angular positioning may be employed when wearing MAX versus STND shoes. Since the unique ankle joint positioning did not alter jump performance, potential MAX footwear users might not need to consider the potential for altered CMVJ performance when determining whether to adopt MAX footwear.     

The influence of a new sole geometry while running

Abstract

Running shoe construction influences the forces experienced by the human body while running. The aim of this study was to ascertain whether the new sole architecture of the On running shoe reduces ground reaction forces compared with running barefoot or with a conventional running shoe and whether it changes the physiological parameters of running in shoes. Thirty-seven trained male participants were studied while running at submaximal speeds wearing their conventional running shoe, wearing the On running shoe and while barefoot. Additional biomechanical and physiological values were investigated to determine whether the On running shoe induced any changes in these parameters compared with conventional running shoes. The On exhibited similar ground reaction forces as conventional shoes, and these were different from the forces experienced while running barefoot, showing that the On was more similar to typical shoed running. No difference was observed in running economy between the On and a conventional shoe model. However, a slightly lower heart rate (HR) (≈1.3%) and blood lactate concentration (≈5.5%) were observed during submaximal running with the On running shoe compared with a conventional running shoe, as well as a greater lateral deviation of the centre of pressure mid-stance. The ramifications of the reduced HR and blood lactate concentration for competitive performance are unknown.     

Cushioning and lateral stability functions of cloth sport shoes

In this study, we evaluated the protective functions of cloth sport shoes, including cushioning and lateral stability. Twelve male students participated in the study (mean +/- s: age 12.7 +/- 0.4 years, mass 40.7 +/- 5.9kg, height 1.50 +/- 0.04m). Cloth sport shoes, running shoes, basketball shoes, crosstraining shoes, and barefoot conditions were investigated in random sequence. Human pendulum and cutting movement tests were used to assess cushioning performance and lateral stability, respectively. For cushioning, the running shoes (2.06 body weight, BW) performed the best, while the cross-training shoes (2.30 BW) and the basketball shoes (2.37 BW) both performed better than the cloth sport shoes (2.55 BW) and going barefoot (2.63 BW). For the lateral stability test, range of inversion--eversion was found to be from 3.6 to 4.9 degrees, which was far less than that for adult participants (> 20 degrees). No significant differences were found between conditions. All conditions showed prolonged durations from foot-strike to maximum inversion (66-95 ms), which was less vigorous than that for adult participants (< 40 ms) and was unlikely to evoke intrinsic stability failure. In conclusion, the cloth sport shoe showed inferior cushioning capability but the same lateral stability as the other sports shoes for children.     

Effects of replica running shoes upon external forces and muscle activity during running

Twelve participants ran (9 km · h(-1)) to test two types of running shoes: replica and original shoes. Ground reaction force, plantar pressure and electromyographic activity were recorded. The shoes were tested randomly and on different days. Comparisons between the two experimental conditions were made by analysis of variance (ANOVA) test (P ≤ 0.05). The time to first peak, loading rate of the first peak and impulse of the first 75 ms of stance were significantly different between the shoes (P ≤ 0.05), revealing an increase of impact forces for the replica shoes. The peak plantar pressure values were significantly higher (P ≤ 0.05) when wearing replica shoes. During running, the contact area was significantly smaller (P ≤ 0.05) for the replica shoe. The electromyographic activity of the analysed muscles did not show changes between the two shoes in running. These findings suggest that the use of replica running shoes can increase the external load applied to the human body, but may not change the muscle activity pattern during locomotion. This new mechanical situation may increase the risk of injuries in these movements.     

Effects of turf and cleat footwear on plantar load distributions in adolescent American football players during resisted pushing

Metatarsal and midfoot injuries are common in American football. Footwear design may influence injury rates by altering plantar foot loading patterns in these regions. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of cleat design on in-shoe plantar foot loading during a football-specific, resisted pushing task. Twenty competitive football players (age 14.7 ± 1.8 years, height 1.72 ± 0.10 m, and mass 71.8 ± 26.9 kg) completed three trials of pushing a weighted sled at maximal effort in a standard shoe (CLEAT) and artificial turf-specific shoe (TURF), with flexible in-shoe force measuring insoles. Repeated measures ANOVAs identified mean differences in maximum force and relative load under all regions of the foot. Results showed higher forces in the CLEAT under the medial (p < 0.001) and lateral (p = 0.004) midfoot, central (p = 0.007) and lateral (p < 0.001) forefoot, and lesser toes (p = 0.01), but lower forces in the hallux (p = 0.02) compared to the TURF shoe. Additionally, relative loading was higher in the CLEAT under the medial (p < 0.001) and lateral (p = 0.002) midfoot and lateral (p < 0.001) forefoot, but lower in the medial forefoot (p = 0.006) and hallux (p < 0.001) compared to the TURF shoe. The two shoes elicited distinct plantar loading profiles and may influence shoe selection decisions during injury prevention or rehabilitation practices.     

青少年女性穿不同鞋行走时足底压力分布研究

通过F—scan足底压力分布解析系统对青少年女性穿不同类型鞋行走时的步态进行足底压力分布的测量和分析。结果表明，青少年女性穿跟高6．5cm以上的高跟鞋行走时，足底第1跖趾关节最大受力值是穿球鞋行走时该点最大受力值的4倍，是穿中跟鞋和松糕鞋行走时该点最大受力值的2倍。穿松糕鞋行走时，足底3点压力变化曲线图与裸足行走时足底3点压力变化曲线图相似，但是，穿松糕鞋行走时，足底3点最大受力值比裸足行走时足底3点最大受力值大。因此。也说明穿松糕鞋行走时下肢肌肉负荷较大。提示，穿高跟鞋行走对青少年女性足的生长发育有严重影响，建议他们日常生活中少穿或者不穿高跟鞋。     

Tibial shock measured during the fencing lunge: the influence of footwear

Fencing is a high-intensity sport involving dynamic movements such as the lunge exposing the musculoskeletal system to high impact forces, which emphasises the importance of the shock attenuating properties of footwear as a factor in the prevention of injury. The aim of this study was to investigate the magnitudes of the transient axial impact shock experienced at the tibia between traditional fencing shoes and standard athletic footwear during the impact phase of the fencing lunge. Peak tibial shock was measured in 19 male fencers in 4 different footwear conditions using an accelerometer placed on the distal aspect of the tibia. The standard footwear (11.08 g and 8.75 g for squash and running shoe, respectively) resulted in significant (p < 0.01) reductions in peak impact shock in comparison to the traditional fencing shoes (15.93 g and 13.97 g for the Adidas and Hi-Tec shoe, respectively). No significant differences were found between the running and squash shoes (p = 0.09) or between the fencing shoes (p = 0.48). The documented reduction in impact shock found suggests that running or squash specific footwear may reduce overuse injury occurrence, indicating that there is justification for a re-design of fencing shoes.     

Movement Time Modulates Spatial Assimilation Effects in Rapid Bimanual Movements

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between use of the conventional football shoe and the epidemic of knee injuries occurring in organized football. All knee injuries in the Public High School League in 1968 and in the Catholic High School League in 1969, when players in the respective leagues wore the conventional shoe, were documented. During the 1969 and 1970 seasons, all Public League players wore “soccer type” shoes with molded soles containing fourteen ?-inch cleats. All Catholic League players wore similar shoes in 1970. In both leagues, all practices and games were conducted on natural turf. Injuries occurring with the soccer type shoe were documented. Comparison of the two groups demonstrated a marked decrease in both the incidence and severity of knee injuries in both leagues when the players wore the multi-cleated shoe. It is strongly recommended that the conventional football shoe be condemned and that only shoes meeting the following specifications be permitted: (a) synthetic molded sole, (b) minimum of 14 cleats per shoe, (c) minimum cleat tip diameter of ½ inch, (d) maximum cleat length of ? inch.     

Neuromuscular,metabolic and hormonal profiles of young tennis players and untrained boys

This study compared the neuromuscular, metabolic and hormonal profiles of trained prepubescent tennis players and an untrained group. The boys in the experimental group (n = 9; mean age ± S.D. = 11.4 ± 0.5 years) had participated in tennis training for 2.3 ± 1.0 years and the boys in the control group (n = 9; mean age ± S.D. = 10.9 ± 0.4 years) were normal active volunteers. The tennis players were found to be physically more active than the controls when the comparison was made for either 1 year (4.9 ± 1.8 vs 2.6 ± 2.5 times per week; P<0.05) or for 1 week (3.4 + 1.2 vs 0.4 ± 0.5 times; P < 0.001) preceding the tests. Choice reaction time was significantly (P <0.01) shorter in the experimental group (258 ± 16 ms) than in the control group (344 + 81 ms). Dropping height in the best drop jump was significantly (P< 0.05) higher in the tennis players (0.46 + 0.19 m) than in the control boys (0.27 ± 0.10 m). The tennis players had significantly lower oxygen consumption at the ‘anaerobic threshold’ than the controls (P < 0.05). There were no significant differences between the groups in serum hormone levels. The small differences that existed may have been caused by actice participation in sport by the tennis players.     

Effects of footwear midsole thickness on running biomechanics

Shoe manufacturers launch running shoes with increased (e.g., maximalists) or decreased (e.g., minimalists) midsole thickness and claim that they may prevent running injury. Previous studies tested footwear models with different midsole thicknesses on the market but the shoe construct was not strictly comparable. Therefore, in the present study, we examined the effect of midsole thickness, from 1-mm to 29-mm, in a standard test shoe prototype on the vertical loading rates, footstrike angle and temporal spatial parameters in distance runners. Fifteen male habitual rearfoot strikers were recruited from local running clubs. They were asked to run on an instrumented treadmill in shoes with different midsole thicknesses. We found significant interactions between midsole thickness with vertical loading rates (p < 0.001), footstrike angle (p = 0.013), contact time (p < 0.001), cadence (p = 0.003), and stride length (p = 0.004). Specifically, shoes with thinner midsole (1- and 5-mm) significantly increased the vertical loading rates and shortened the contact time, when compared with thicker midsole shoes (25- and 29-mm). However, we did not observe any substantial differences in the footstrike angle, cadence and stride length between other shod conditions. The present study provides biomechanical data regarding the relationship between full spectrum midsole thicknesses and running biomechanics in a group of rearfoot strikers.     

Effects of a minimalist shoe on running economy and 5-km running performance

The purpose of this study was to determine if minimalist shoes improve time trial performance of trained distance runners and if changes in running economy, shoe mass, stride length, stride rate and footfall pattern were related to any difference in performance. Twenty-six trained runners performed three 6-min sub-maximal treadmill runs at 11, 13 and 15 km·h^?1 in minimalist and conventional shoes while running economy, stride length, stride rate and footfall pattern were assessed. They then performed a 5-km time trial. In the minimalist shoe, runners completed the trial in less time (effect size 0.20 ± 0.12), were more economical during sub-maximal running (effect size 0.33 ± 0.14) and decreased stride length (effect size 0.22 ± 0.10) and increased stride rate (effect size 0.22 ± 0.11). All but one runner ran with a rearfoot footfall in the minimalist shoe. Improvements in time trial performance were associated with improvements in running economy at 15 km·h^?1 (r = 0.58), with 79% of the improved economy accounted for by reduced shoe mass (P < 0.05). The results suggest that running in minimalist shoes improves running economy and 5-km running performance.     

Childhood Physical Fitness and Performance as Predictors of High School Sport Participation

ABSTRACT

Participation in youth sport is positively associated with physical fitness and performance. The purpose of the current study was to examine if physical fitness measures during childhood and early adolescence predicted high school sport participation. Participants included youth in the Michigan State University Motor Performance Study. Measures consisted of the endurance shuttle run, Wells sit-and-reach, jump and reach, standing long jump, agility shuttle run and 30-yard dash. Individual, generalized estimating equation models were used to estimate the association between each measure and the odds of participating in high school sport. For both sexes, the endurance shuttle run and agility shuttle run were related to sport participation. For boys only, the long jump and 30-yard dash were also associated with sport participation. Better physical fitness and performance across several dimensions in childhood, including those related to motor skills, enhanced the likelihood of sport participation in high school.     

Joint coordination when running in minimalist,neutral, and ultra-cushioning shoes

ABSTRACT

Ultra-cushioning (ULTRA) shoes are new to the running shoe market. Several studies have evaluated kinematics and kinetics while running in ULTRA shoes, however it remains unknown how such shoes influence joint coordination. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to evaluate lower extremity coordination and coordination variability when running in minimalist (MIN), traditional (NEUT) and ULTRA shoes. Fifteen runners ran for ten minutes in each shoe type. Coordination patterns and coordination variability were assessed for rearfoot-tibia, rearfoot-knee, and tibia-knee couplings using a modified vector coding method during early, mid, and late stance periods. During late stance ULTRA shoes resulted in more antiphase coordination than MIN (p =.036) or NEUT (p =.047) shoes and less in-phase coordination than MIN (p =.048) or NEUT (p =.013) shoes. During late stance there was also more proximal phase rearfoot-knee coordination in ULTRA shoes than in either MIN (p =.039) or NEUT (p =.005) shoes and less in-phase coordination in ULTRA shoes than in NEUT shoes (p =.006). There were no differences in coordination variability between shoes during any phase. The differences in coordination may have implications for tissue loading and injury development when running in ULTRA shoes..     

A new footwear technology to promote non-heelstrike landing and enhance running performance: Fact or fad?

This study sought to compare the kinetics and kinematics data in a group of habitual shod runners when running in traditional running shoes and newly designed minimalist shoes with lug platform. This novel footwear design claims to simulate barefoot running and reduce energy loss during impact. We compared footstrike angle (FSA), vertical average (VALR) and instantaneous (VILR) loading rates, energy loss and initial vertical stiffness between two shoe conditions. Runners demonstrated a decreased FSA while running in minimalist shoes with lug platform than traditional shoes (P = 0.003; Cohen’s d = 0.918). However, we did not observe a landing pattern transition. VALR and VILR between two footwear conditions showed no significant difference (P = 0.191–0.258; Cohen’s d = 0.304–0.460). Initial vertical stiffness (P = 0.032; Cohen’s d = 0.671) and energy loss (P = 0.044; Cohen’s d = 0.578) were greater when running in minimalist shoes with lug platform. The results show that minimalist shoes with lug platform reduce the FSA but may not lead to a landing pattern switch or lower vertical loading rates. Interestingly, the new shoe design leads to a greater energy loss than traditional running shoes, which could be explained by a higher initial vertical stiffness.     

Running economy,mechanics, and marathon racing shoes

ABSTRACT

The choice of marathon racing shoes can greatly affect performance. The purpose of this study is to metabolically and mechanically compare the consumer version of the Nike Vaporfly 4% shoe to two other popular marathon shoes, and determine differences in running economy. Nineteen subjects performed two 5-minute trials at 4.44m/s wearing the Adidas Adios Boost (AB), Nike Zoom Streak (ZS), and Nike Vaporfly 4% (VP) in random order. Oxygen uptake was recorded during minutes 3–5 and averaged across both shoe trials. On a second day, subjects wore reflective markers, and performed a 3-minute trial in each shoe. Motion and force data were collected over the final 30 seconds of each trial. VP oxygen uptake was 2.8% and 1.9% lower than the AB and ZS. Stride length, plantar flexion velocity, and center of mass vertical oscillation were significantly different in the VP. The percent benefit of the VP over AB shoe was predicted by subject ground time. These results indicate that use of the VP shoe results in improved running economy, partially due to differences in running mechanics. Subject variation in running economy improvement is only partially explained by variation in ground time.     

青少年赤足与穿鞋运动的生物力学分析

采用德国Novel公司的Pedar鞋垫式(in-sole)足底压力测量系统,对40名中学生赤足与穿着慢跑鞋在1.5m·s-1、3.0m·s8-1和5.0m·s-13个速度下的步态周期、最大地面反作用力、最大足底压强、平均足底压强和力量-时间积分值进行分析,探讨赤足运动与穿鞋运动的生物力学特性,以及引起赤足和穿鞋运动之间差异的原因,为指导青少年健康运动提供科学、可靠的参考依据.研究结果证实,赤足运动与穿鞋运动在步态、用力方式、压力分布上都存在显著差异,穿着慢跑鞋运动可有效降低运动损伤出现的几率,为青少年的健康运动提供基础保障.