Effects of different physical education programmes on children’s skill- and health-related outcomes: a pilot randomised controlled trial

Aim of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of two different 5-month physical education (PE) interventions conducted by a specialist PE teacher on primary school children’s skill- and health-related outcomes. About 230 children were randomly assigned to one of three intervention groups: experimental_1 group, experimental_2 group or control group (school curriculum given by the generalist teacher). Pre- and post-intervention tests assessed pupils’ fitness (pacer, curl-up, push-up, trunk lift, sit and reach tests) and gross motor coordination (shifting platforms, balance beam, jumping laterally, hopping on one leg over an obstacle tests). Both experimental groups significantly improved some fitness and coordinative tests after the intervention period when compared with control group. However, no differential changes on coordinative development were observed between the 2 experimental groups. Results of this study demonstrated that children benefitted from a well-structured PE intervention conducted and supervised by a specialist PE teacher improving their motor skills and fitness.     

Determination of the Aerobic Benefit of Selected Physical Education Activities

We examined the relationship between competence in three fundamental motor skills (throwing, kicking, and jumping) and six measures of health-related physical fitness in young adults (ages 18–25). We assessed motor skill competence using product scores of maximum kicking and throwing speed and maximum jumping distance. A factor analysis indicated the 12-min run/walk, percent body fat, curl-ups, grip strength, and maximum leg press strength all loaded on one factor defining the construct of “overall fitness.” Multiple regression analyses indicated that the product scores for jumping (74%), kicking (58%), and throwing (59%) predicted 79% of the variance in overall fitness. Gender was not a significant predictor of fitness. Results suggest that developing motor skill competence may be fundamental in developing and maintaining adequate physical fitness into adulthood. These data represent the strongest to date on the relationship between motor skill competence and physical fitness.     

Physical education teacher education students' knowledge,perceptions and experiences of promoting healthy,active lifestyles in secondary schools

Background: Physical education teacher education (PETE) offers a context for students to learn about the promotion of active lifestyles in secondary schools through their interactions and experiences during the teacher education process. However, previous studies have found low levels of health-related fitness knowledge amongst PETE students, which is a concern given that there are high expectations of physical education (PE) to promote healthy, active lifestyles. In addition, international literature reveals a number of problematic issues associated with health-related teaching, learning and professional development in PE. Exploration of health-related experiences within the PETE process and consideration of the extent to which they address these previously identified issues were considered worthy of study because of PETE's potential to influence the health-related teaching of the students, and to ultimately impact the health-related knowledge and behaviour of the pupils they go on to teach.

Purpose: To explore PETE students' health-related physical education (HRPE) knowledge, perceptions and experiences during a PETE programme.

Participants and setting: Purposive selection of PE students on a one-year post-graduate secondary PETE programme at one University in England, working in partnership with up to 60 schools.

Research design: Case study.

Data collection: A qualitative approach founded on the interpretive paradigm was used, utilising a questionnaire completed by 124 PETE students.

Data analysis: Responses to the open-ended questions were analysed by means of the generation of themes using constructivist grounded theory methods.

Findings: At the outset of their programme, PETE students' knowledge of how active children should be was limited and confused. Their initial perceptions of the learning associated with promoting healthy, active lifestyles in PE were at variance with what they experienced in schools during their training. These experiences were diverse, the most common structure being discrete units of study with no health-related learning evident within the rest of the PE programme. The focus of the HRPE learning was predominantly physiological with minimal attention to physical activity recommendations or monitoring. Most students experienced school-based HRPE programmes, which they considered not particularly effective in promoting healthy, active lifestyles amongst young people.

Conclusion: It would seem that PETE is not adequately preparing future PE teachers to promote healthy, active lifestyles and is not addressing previously identified issues in health-related teaching and learning. Changes clearly need to be made to the health-related interactions and experiences within PETE and within any PE, and sports science degree programmes preceeding or associated with PETE. PE is unlikely to effectively promote healthy, active lifestyles without the health-related aspect of PETE being radically changed, especially and crucially the school-based provision. This requires professionals working together to draw upon and utilise up-to-date health knowledge, as well as the best available guidance on how to ensure that teachers are able to use such information.     

Effects of two physical education programmes on health- and skill-related physical fitness of Albanian children

This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of two school-based physical education (PE) programmes (exercise-based and games-based) compared with traditional PE, on health- and skill-related physical fitness components in children in Tirana, Albania.

Participants were 378 first-grade (6.8 years) and 389 fourth-grade (9.8 years) children attending four randomly selected schools in Tirana. Twenty-four school classes within these schools were randomly selected (stratified by school and school grade) to participate as exercise group (EG), games group (GG) and control group (CG). Both EG and GG intervention programmes were taught by professional PE teachers using station/circuit teaching framework while CG referred to traditional PE school lessons by a general teacher. All programmes ran in parallel and lasted 5 months, having the same frequency (twice weekly) and duration (45 min). Heart rate (HR) monitoring showed that intensity during PE lessons was significantly higher in the intervention groups compared with control (P < 0.001). Both PE exercise- and games programmes significantly improved several health- and skill-related fitness indicators compared with traditional PE lessons (e.g. gross motor skill summary score: 9.4 (95% CI 7.9; 10.9) for exercise vs. control and 6.5 (95% CI 5.1; 8.1) for games vs. control, cardiorespiratory fitness: 2.0 ml O₂ · min^?1 · kg^?1 (95% CI 1.5; 2.4) for exercise vs. control and 1.4 ml O₂ · min^?1 · kg^?1 (95% CI 1.0; 1.8) for games vs. control). Furthermore, compared to games-based PE, exercise-based PE showed more positive changes in some gross motor coordination skills outcomes, coordination skills outcomes and cardiorespiratory fitness. The results from this study show that exercise- and games-based PE represents a useful strategy for improving health- and skill-related physical fitness in Albanian elementary school children. In addition, the study shows that exercise-based PE was more effective than games-based PE in improving gross motor function and cardiorespiratory fitness.     

Motor tests for primary school aged children: A systematic review

Motor testing in education has gained in relevance in light of recent developments in educational systems (Köller & Baumert, 2012). The purpose of this systematic review was to identify studies using motor tests in primary school children aged 4 to 12 years and to synthetize information about the quality and application of the test instruments used. A systematic review of 910 records identified by a search of nine databases yielded 144 papers reporting motor testing in primary school age children, including 25 articles reporting on the quality of 20 test instruments. In the selected articles, tests grounded on the constructs of “motor abilities” and/or “motor skills” are the most frequent and are mostly used for monitoring purposes or for impact research. Tests based on the construct “motor competencies” have become popular only recently, being relevant for educational motor testing due to their curricular validity. The test instruments have been investigated towards their validity and reliability to different extents. However, for several test instruments factorial validity has not been established and more validation studies are needed to improve their psychometric quality especially if used in educational contexts.     

Motivational processes in children's physical activity and health-related quality of life

Background: School physical education (PE) not only offers and promotes health-related physical activity (PA), but also encompasses the promotion and development of health-related well-being such as health-related quality of life (HRQOL). Furthermore, assessing PA and HRQOL have become major issues in pediatric public health and also serve as a major goal of Healthy people 2020. Grounded in the expectancy-value and achievement goal frameworks, the primary purpose of this study was to examine the relationships among the perceptions of motivational climate in PE, expectancy-value beliefs, HRQOL, and PA among elementary children. A secondary purpose was to test whether expectancy-value beliefs mediate the relationship between motivational climate and HRQOL as well as between motivational climate and PA (self-reported PA and pedometer-based PA, respectively).

Methods: Participants were 336 elementary children recruited from three public schools in the southeastern USA (M_age?=?9.87; 179 girls, 157 boys). The majority of the participants (53.3%) were White students and the remainder (46.7%) including African-American (37.4%), Asian-American (1.5%), Hispanic-American (1.8%) and others (5.9%). Students completed a previously validated questionnaire assessing expectancy-related beliefs and task values toward PE. The 23-item pediatric QOL inventory generic core scale (PedsQL^TM 4.0) was used to assess participants’ HRQOL. Children's PA levels were assessed by using a self-reported survey (Physical Activity Questionnaire for Older Children) and three-day pedometer counts (steps/min during PE).

Analysis/Results: Correlational analyses showed that expectancy-related beliefs and task values were positively related to PA and HRQOL. Regression analyses indicated that both mastery and performance motivational climate had a positive effect on children's expectancy beliefs and task values. Mediational analyses were used to evaluate the potential mediational relationships among motivational climate (independent variables: mastery and performance climates), expectancy-value beliefs (mediator: expectancy-value beliefs), and HRQOL and PA (dependent variables: total HRQOL score, self-reported PA and steps/min), respectively.

Conclusions: A mastery motivational climate together with high expectancy beliefs has a positive association with HRQOL, which in turn could produce health benefits in the future. Results suggest that a performance motivational climate could be associated with less activity (i.e. lower steps/min) even when students view PE as interesting, important, and useful. One important implication of the study is that by promoting mastery climates and expectancy-value beliefs in PE practitioners can encourage children to engage in PA both in and outside of school, and consequently may influence their quality of life.     

肢体间不对称对运动表现的影响及干预手段

肢体间不对称是当前国际体能训练研究领域的热点问题。梳理国际权威研究成果,厘清肢体间不对称的概念和内涵,探究肢体间不对称与运动表现的关系、肢体不对称的评估方式、肢体间不对称的干预方法。主要结论：第一,肢体间不对称主要是指身体左右两侧肢体结构、动作模式、运动能力和运动技能的差异;第二,肢体间不对称直接影响爆发力输出、多向速度、离心-向心能力、平衡能力,潜在影响运动经济性、动作模式及专项运动技能的发挥;第三,肢体间不对称的干预方式为力量和爆发力训练（双侧和单侧）、快速伸缩复合训练、核心区训练、平衡能力训练等。建议在训练实践中应将肢体不对称与基础力量、爆发力等测评结合起来,以优化精英运动员的评估体系;应对运动员的肢体间不对称进行持续的动态监控,探索肢体间不对称与多种运动能力、神经肌肉疲劳等多种能力的交互影响,为调控训练计划提供指南。     

不同持续时间低氧后训练对大鼠海马组织细胞凋亡的影响

目的:观察不同持续时间低氧后训练对大鼠海马组织细胞凋亡的影响,探讨低氧训练对海马神经细胞凋亡的影响,为科学地指导运动员进行低氧训练提供实验依据.方法:雄性SD大鼠60只,随机分为6组,每组10只,正常对照组(A组),低氧8 h组(B组),低氧12h组(C组),训练对照组(D组),低氧 8 h 训练组(E组),低氧 12 h 训练组(F组).采用零坡度跑台的训练方式,对D、E和F 3组以25 m/min 的速度在常氧环境中每天训练1 h.将B、C、E和F组放人低氧舱内,氧浓度为 12.5%(相当于 4000 m 海拔高度),过8 h和12h后,分别将B、E组和c、F组取出放入正常氧浓度环境.训练共持续4周,每周5天.最后一次训练至力竭后 24 h 断头处死,取大鼠海马组织,测定Bax和BcI-2蛋白表达的阳性细胞个数和凋亡指数.研究结果显示:在低氧训练过程机体对低氧刺激的适应性改变,使得在停止运动后,海马组织的损害减小.随着低氧时间的延长,低氧训练使大鼠海马组织CA1区的细胞凋亡有减少的趋势,从而起到神经保护作用.     

Re-engaging disengaged pupils in physical education: an appreciative inquiry perspective

Many children and young people enjoy physical education (PE), yet many do not, and subsequently become disengaged from PE. Previous research that has explored pupil disengagement from PE has focused on what teachers should do to re-engage their pupils, or has encouraged dis-engaged pupils to create a curriculum that they perceive to be socially and culturally relevant. While this research is extremely important, it does not highlight enough what teachers bring to the teaching and learning process. An alternative approach to understanding (dis)engagement in PE is to start by asking both teachers and pupils: what is currently working, why is it working, and what could be in the future? This ‘appreciative inquiry’ (AI) approach is underpinned by the belief that everyone and everything has strengths that can be developed, and that those strengths should be the starting point for change. Consequently, in establishing the use of AI as an important means of understanding and potentially enhancing PE pedagogy, this research sought to understand the successful teaching strategies developed by PE teachers to re-engage disengaged pupils. Importantly, in recognising the value of understanding pupil experiences we also explored and shared the success stories of the ‘re-engaged’ pupils. Finally, in extending the research in this area, we examined the impact that teacher engagement in the AI process had on their professional learning. As the teachers engaged in the AI process, they discussed, listened to (each other and their pupils), reflected and shared their success stories. This, in turn, appears to have encouraged them to re-articulate and re-enact their practice and learning within the context of a more positive future. They designed (and in some cases, co-design with their pupils) meaningful and empowering PE programmes for their ‘disengaged’ pupils and have subsequently made a commitment to future professional learning and inquiry.     

The Effects of Three Styles of Teaching on the Psychomotor Performance And Social Skill Development of Fifth Grade Children

Abstract

The effects of Mosston's teaching styles B, C and E were examined in terms of motor skill acquisition and social skill development of fifth grade children. Ninety-six children, randomly selected and randomly assigned to one of three treatment groups, were taught a hockey accuracy task. Motor performance data were collected prior to, midway through, and following training; they were analyzed within groups, to determine if learning was evident, and across groups, to examine the relative effectiveness of these three styles of teaching. Social behavior patterns observed during learner-to-learner interaction were also examined during a second task in which pairs of learners were asked to “help” each other learn the task. A 3 × 3 analysis of variance with repeated measures revealed that (1) all three groups learned the task and (2) they learned comparably well. It was concluded that these three styles of teaching are all effective in facilitating learning of this type of motor task. Style C, an arrangement in whcih learners work in pairs, one performing the task while being provided with formative feedback by the other, was found not only to produce comparable learning, but to significantly enhance social skill development on those behaviors associated with giving feedback and receiving it from a peer.     

Influences on the expression of health within physical education curricula in secondary schools in England and Wales

This paper presents selected findings from a wider study on the expression of health within physical education (PE) curricula in secondary schools in England and Wales. The study revealed that the expression of health in PE broadly reflected ideologies associated with promoting ‘fitness for life’ and ‘fitness for performance’ and that representations of both discourses were present, to a lesser or greater extent, in all schools in the study. Curiously, however, rhetorical ‘fitness for life’ discourses were commonly expressed through ‘fitness for performance’ practices in the form of testing and training activities. This paper attempts to explain this mismatch between health-related policy and practice by focusing on what was revealed about the influences on the expression of health in PE. A case study approach was adopted, involving five state secondary schools, three in England and two in Wales. Data sources included health-related school documentation, interviews with PE teachers and observation of a health-related unit of work in one of the schools. The reasons that testing and training activities were the most common contexts for the delivery of health-related learning included the following: conceptual confusion and limited understanding, leading to a belief that training and testing activities are unproblematic and result in increased health, activity and fitness levels; the resolution of pragmatic issues associated with large groups, limited space and minimal equipment as well as preparation for accredited courses in PE; tradition and a desire by teachers to remain with familiar content and teaching approaches, and limited awareness of alternative ‘fitness for life’ pedagogies. This study has served to increase awareness of the influences on and tensions between health-related discourses in secondary school PE curricula in England and Wales and has provided further demonstration of and insight into the complex relationship between health-related policy and practice.     

Correlations between Success in Student Teaching and Success on the Job

Purpose: This exploratory study examined the notion of Seefeldt's (1980) hypothesized motor skill “proficiency barrier” related to composite levels of health-related physical fitness (HRF) in young adults. Method: A motor skill competence (MSC) index composed of maximum throwing and kicking speed and jumping distance in 187 young adults aged 18 to 25 years old was evaluated against a composite index of 5 health-related fitness (HRF) test scores. MSC (high, moderate, and low) and HRF indexes (good, fair, and poor) were categorized according to normative fitness percentile ranges. 2 separate 3-way chi-square analyses were conducted to determine the probabilities of skill predicting fitness and fitness predicting skill. Results: Most correlations among HRF and MSC variables by gender demonstrated low-to-moderate positive correlations in both men (12/15; r = .23–.58) and women (14/15; r = .21–.53). Chi-square analyses for the total sample, using composite indexes, demonstrated statistically significant predictive models, χ ² (1, N = 187) = 66.99, p < .001, Cramer's V = .42. Only 3.1% of low-skilled (2 of 65) individuals were classified as having a “good” HRF. Only 1 participant (out of 65) who demonstrated high MSC was classified as having “poor” HRF (1.5%). Conclusion: Although individual correlations among individual MSC and HRF measures were low to moderate, these data provide indirect evidence for the possibility of a motor skill “proficiency barrier” as indicated by low composite HRF levels. This study may generate future research to address the proficiency barrier hypothesis in youth as well as adults.     

马拉松不同水平业余男子选手训练学和肌力特征比较

对完成2016年北京马拉松、上海国际马拉松的258名男性业余选手赛前1周内进行训练学特征问卷和体能测试,将规定时间完成比赛且赛后1周完成伤病排查随访者193人纳入研究。根据2018年新增分级标准：A组118人、B组65人、C组10人。结果显示,周训练平均配速3组间均存在显著差异[A组（9.6±3.4） km/h、B组（11.8±4.0） km/h、C组（13.7±6.4） km/h];安排抗阻训练A组（56.2%）与B组 （66.2%）和C组（70.7%）存在显著差异;安排间歇训练3组间均存在显著差异（A组40.6%、B组 50.2%、C组69.8%）（P＜0.05）;单腿跳相对值和单腿跳对称性A组（78.53%±12.43%、73%±13%）与B组（85.37%±12.80%、81%±14%）、C组（91.70%±11.43%、87%±12%）间存在显著差异;卷腹次数C组（61.00±62.27）次与A组（24.90±27.91）次、B组（35.95±26.40）次间存在显著差异（P＜0.05）。表明不同级别业余马拉松选手的主要训练差异为抗阻训练和间歇训练的参与度,与成绩相关的肌力特征指标有单脚跳相对值、单脚跳对称性和卷腹次数,下肢刚度未见差异。     

Influence of Three Different Training Programs on Strength and Speed of a Limb Movement

Abstract

The experiment was designed to compare the effects of isometric-isotonic (A), dynamic-overload (B), and free swing (C) exercise programs on the speed and strength of a lateral arm movement The 26 college men in each group—three experimental and one control—were given pre- and post-training speed and strength trials. Each experimental group performed its assigned exercise twice a week during the 10-week training period. Reliability coefficients for both strength and speed of movement measurements were found to be high. Following training there were significant speed increases in both the isometric-isotonic and dynamic-overload groups (t=10.06 and 8.10; however, the difference in speed gain between conditions was nonsignificant (F=.10). Also, strength increases in both of these groups were significant (t=8.81 and 3.08), with that of the isometric-isotonic group significantly greater than the dynamic-overload group (F=5.11). No significant speed or strength gains were registered by either the free swing or control group.     

Physical exercises for preventing injuries among adult male football players: A systematic review

Background:Football is the most practised sport in the world and is associated with the risk of injuries in the players.Some studies have been published that identify injury prevention programs,but there is no review of the full body of evidence on injury prevention programs for use by football coaches.The aim of this article was to carry out a systematic review of published studies on injury prevention programs for adult male footballers,identify points of common understanding and establish recommendations that should be considered in the design of injury prevention strategies.Methods:PubMed and EMBASE databases were used to identify relevant published articles using the following keywords:"soccer"AND"injury"AND"prevention".Results:A total of 2512 studies were identified initially,but only 11 studies met the inclusion criteria,and their outcomes are presented.Results revealed that injury prevention programs in football have focused on strength training,proprioceptive training,multicomponent programs(balance,core stability,and functional strength and mobility),and warm-up programs.Conclusion:Based on results from the studies analyzed,football players can lower the incidence of match and training injuries by participating in dynamic warm-up programs that include preventive exercises before games or during training sessions,and by adding strength,balance,and mobility training to the training sessions.     

Development and Validation of a Test Instrument for the Assessment of Basic Motor Competencies in Primary School

A central aim of Physical Education (PE) is the promotion of basic motor competencies (“Motorische Basiskompetenzen” [MOBAK]). These are the necessary prerequisites for developing a physically active lifestyle. Valid test instruments are needed for the evaluation of the effect of PE. For this purpose, we developed a test instrument for the assessment of basic motor competencies in first graders. We empirically investigated the construct validity of this MOBAK test instrument in a study (N = 317, M = 7.0 years, girls: n = 173, boys: n = 144). The exploratory factor analysis shows a two factorial structure (locomotion, object control), which is confirmed in a confirmatory factor analysis (CFI = .96, RMSEA = .036, WRMR = .65). In subsequent analyses, we were able to demonstrate that the calculation of a factor sum value for each factor is statistically valid, the factorial structure is the same for boys and girls (χ² [6] = 6.95, p = .33), and no differential item functioning exists. The MOBAK test instrument is sufficient for the test-theoretical requirements and is thus suitable for the evaluation of the effect of PE.     

Research Abstracts

Abstract

Two hundred high school and college students were paired to compete in two game abstracts to determine the effect of “game strategy” on winning two-person, zero-sum, finite strategy games involving a motor skill and to determine the effect of play experience on rational decision making. Subjects competed in eight series of ten plays for a total of 8,000 plays, under the following conditions: play vs. play, play-skill vs. play-skill, strategy-skill vs. play-skill, strategy vs. play, play-skill vs. strategy-skill, play vs. strategy, strategy vs. strategy, and strategy-skill vs. strategy-skill. Results indicate that “game strategy” contributes significantly to the winning of two-person, zero-sum, finite strategy games involving a motor skill and that rational decision making improves through experience. Within the limitations of this study it was concluded that play experience contributes to rational decision making in simple strategy games while “game strategy” is beneficial to winning complex strategy games.     

A meta-analysis of maturation-related variation in adolescent boy athletes’ adaptations to short-term resistance training

This meta-analysis investigated the maturation-related pattern of adaptations to resistance training in boy athletes. We included studies examining the effects of 4–16-week resistance training programmes in healthy boy athletes aged 10–18 years. Pooled estimates of effect size for change in strength across all studies (n = 19) were calculated using the inverse–variance random effects model for meta-analyses. Estimates were also calculated for groups based on likely biological maturity status (“before”, “during” and “after” peak height velocity). Using the standardised mean difference, resistance training increased strength across all groups (effect size = 0.98, [CI: 0.70–1.27]). Strength gains were larger during (1.11 [0.67–1.54]) and after (1.01 [0.56–1.46]) peak height velocity than before (0.5 [?0.06–1.07]). Adaptations to resistance training are greater in adolescent boys during or after peak height velocity. These findings should help coaches to optimise the timing of training programmes that are designed to improve strength in boy athletes.     

突发疫情下对大学体育课程的思考

运用文献资料法、专家访谈法等方法对突发疫情下大学体育课程相关问题进行研究。分析认为,突发疫情下有必要开设大学体育课程,但存在政策理论指导欠明确、非常规实践教学经验积累不足、合适的课程资源储备有限、教师应变与创新能力不够等问题。提出对策：突发疫情下大学体育课程应围绕“宅体育”,从拓展知识、补充理论,挖掘技能、完善体系,共建课程、充实资源,加强培养、拓宽形式等多方面进行思考与实践。