A review of batting in men’s cricket

In this review, we critically evaluate the scientific research into the morphology and physiology of cricket batsmen. We consider all aspects of the motor control of this skill, in the context of research into dynamic interceptive actions, the biomechanics (kinematics and kinetics) of the various phases of batting strokes and injuries to batsmen. Some attention is also devoted to batting equipment and to psychological factors in batting. Because of the lack of published scientific research into women's cricket, this review focuses on the men's game and covers research on batsmen of various playing standards. For the future, we see as a high priority research into injury mechanisms, rather than simple injury statistics, and the role of cricket equipment design in injury prevention. A second priority is for multi- or inter-disciplinary research, linking the biomechanics of batting to the underlying motor control of the movements and the effect of environmental information. Biomechanical studies of the variability of the batsman's movements are needed, and these should be related to the compensatory variability proposal of ecological psychology. Clearly, there is also a need for scientific research into batting in women's cricket, which has been inadequately researched to date.     

A review of batting in men's cricket

In this review, we critically evaluate the scientific research into the morphology and physiology of cricket batsmen. We consider all aspects of the motor control of this skill, in the context of research into dynamic interceptive actions, the biomechanics (kinematics and kinetics) of the various phases of batting strokes and injuries to batsmen. Some attention is also devoted to batting equipment and to psychological factors in batting. Because of the lack of published scientific research into women's cricket, this review focuses on the men's game and covers research on batsmen of various playing standards. For the future, we see as a high priority research into injury mechanisms, rather than simple injury statistics, and the role of cricket equipment design in injury prevention. A second priority is for multi- or inter-disciplinary research, linking the biomechanics of batting to the underlying motor control of the movements and the effect of environmental information. Biomechanical studies of the variability of the batsman's movements are needed, and these should be related to the compensatory variability proposal of ecological psychology. Clearly, there is also a need for scientific research into batting in women's cricket, which has been inadequately researched to date.     

The position of the head and centre of mass during the front foot off-drive in skilled and less-skilled cricket batsmen

The aim of this study was to compare selected kinematic variables of the front foot off-drive in skilled and less-skilled cricket batsmen. High-speed digital cameras were used to record the three-dimensional kinematics of 10 skilled and 10 less-skilled right-handed batsmen when playing a shadow front foot off-drive to realistic projected video footage. Skilled batsmen were more likely to identify the type of delivery bowled. Seventy percent of skilled batsmen had preparatory feet or foot movement before committing to play forward, while only 20% of the less-skilled batsmen utilized this trigger movement. Throughout the drive, the head of the skilled batsmen was further forward of the centre base point than that of the less-skilled batsmen. This forward head position was associated with the tendency for the skilled batsmen's centre of mass to be further forward during the predicted bat–ball contact. There were no significant differences between groups in the shoulder angle, bat angle or bat speed during the different phases of the stroke. There was a tendency for the less-skilled batsmen to have a larger hip angle at contact. This study provides further understanding of the factors associated with skilled performance in cricket batting, which coaches should consider when training less-skilled performers.     

The position of the head and centre of mass during the front foot off-drive in skilled and less-skilled cricket batsmen

The aim of this study was to compare selected kinematic variables of the front foot off-drive in skilled and less-skilled cricket batsmen. High-speed digital cameras were used to record the three-dimensional kinematics of 10 skilled and 10 less-skilled right-handed batsmen when playing a shadow front foot off-drive to realistic projected video footage. Skilled batsmen were more likely to identify the type of delivery bowled. Seventy percent of skilled batsmen had preparatory feet or foot movement before committing to play forward, while only 20% of the less-skilled batsmen utilized this trigger movement. Throughout the drive, the head of the skilled batsmen was further forward of the centre base point than that of the less-skilled batsmen. This forward head position was associated with the tendency for the skilled batsmen's centre of mass to be further forward during the predicted bat-ball contact. There were no significant differences between groups in the shoulder angle, bat angle or bat speed during the different phases of the stroke. There was a tendency for the less-skilled batsmen to have a larger hip angle at contact. This study provides further understanding of the factors associated with skilled performance in cricket batting, which coaches should consider when training less-skilled performers.     

Developmental activities that contribute to high or low performance by elite cricket batters when recognizing type of delivery from bowlers' advanced postural cues

We examined the developmental activities that contribute to the development of superior anticipation skill among elite cricket batters. The batters viewed 36 video clips involving deliveries from bowlers that were occluded at ball release and were required to predict delivery type. Accuracy scores were used to create two subgroups: high-performing and low-performing anticipators. Questionnaires were used to record the participation history profiles of the groups. In the early stages of development, hours accumulated in cricket and other sports, as well as milestones achieved, did not differentiate groups. Significant between-group differences in activity profiles were found between 13 and 15 years of age, with high-performing anticipators accumulating more hours in structured cricket activity, and specifically in batting, compared with their low-performing counterparts.     

Movement patterns and physical strain during a novel, simulated cricket batting innings (BATEX)

A simulated cricket batting innings was developed to replicate the physical demands of scoring a century during One-Day International cricket. The simulated innings requires running-between-the-wickets across six 5-over stages, each of 21 min duration. To validate whether the simulated batting innings is reflective of One-Day International batting, movement patterns were collected using a global positioning system (GPS) and compared with previous research. In addition, indicators of physical strain were recorded (heart rate, jump heights, sweat loss, tympanic temperature). Nine club cricketers (mean ± s: age 20 ± 3 years; body mass 79.5 ± 7.9 kg) performed the simulated innings outdoors. There was a moderate trend for distance covered in the simulated innings to be less than that during One-Day batting (2171 ± 157 vs. 2476 ± 631 m · h?1; effect size = 0.78). This difference was largely explained by a strong trend for less distance covered walking in the simulated innings than in One-Day batting (1359 ± 157 vs. 1604 ± 438 m · h?1; effect size = 1.61). However, there was a marked trend for distance covered both striding and sprinting to be greater in the simulated innings than in One-Day batting (effect size > 1.2). Practically, the simulated batting innings may be used for match-realistic physical training and as a research protocol to assess the demands of prolonged, high-intensity cricket batting.     

Does performance level affect initial ball flight kinematics in finger and wrist-spin cricket bowlers?

Spin bowling plays a fundamental role within the game of cricket yet little is known about the initial ball kinematics in elite and pathway spin bowlers or their relationship to performance. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to record three-dimensional ball kinematics in a large and truly high level cohort of elite and pathway finger-spin (FS) and wrist-spin (WS) bowlers, identifying potential performance measures that can be subsequently used in future research. A 22-camera Vicon motion analysis system captured retro-reflective markers placed on the seam (static) and ball (dynamic) to quantify ball kinematics in 36 FS (12 elite and 24 pathway) and 20 WS (eight elite and 12 pathway) bowlers. Results indicated that FS bowlers delivered the ball with an increased axis of rotation elevation, while wrist-spin bowlers placed greater amounts of revolutions on the ball. It also highlighted that ball release (BR) velocity, revolutions and velocity/revolution index scores for both groups and seam stability for FS bowlers, and seam azimuth angle and spin axis elevation angle for WS bowlers, were discriminators of playing level. As such these variables could be used as indicators of performance (i.e. performance measures) in future research.     

Movement patterns and physical strain during a novel,simulated cricket batting innings (BATEX)

Abstract

A simulated cricket batting innings was developed to replicate the physical demands of scoring a century during One-Day International cricket. The simulated innings requires running-between-the-wickets across six 5-over stages, each of 21 min duration. To validate whether the simulated batting innings is reflective of One-Day International batting, movement patterns were collected using a global positioning system (GPS) and compared with previous research. In addition, indicators of physical strain were recorded (heart rate, jump heights, sweat loss, tympanic temperature). Nine club cricketers (mean ± s: age 20 ± 3 years; body mass 79.5 ± 7.9 kg) performed the simulated innings outdoors. There was a moderate trend for distance covered in the simulated innings to be less than that during One-Day batting (2171 ± 157 vs. 2476 ± 631 m · h^?1; effect size = 0.78). This difference was largely explained by a strong trend for less distance covered walking in the simulated innings than in One-Day batting (1359 ± 157 vs. 1604 ± 438 m · h^?1; effect size = 1.61). However, there was a marked trend for distance covered both striding and sprinting to be greater in the simulated innings than in One-Day batting (effect size > 1.2). Practically, the simulated batting innings may be used for match-realistic physical training and as a research protocol to assess the demands of prolonged, high-intensity cricket batting.     

Visual-perceptual training with motor practice of the observed movement pattern improves anticipation in emerging expert cricket batsmen

ABSTRACT

This study addressed the paucity of evidence of whether visual anticipation can be improved in emerging experts in striking sports. Twelve emerging expert batsmen from a state cricket squad were equally randomised into intervention and control groups. They were pre-and-post tested on a video temporal occlusion test of a fast bowler, as well as transfer tests of different fast and slow bowlers. The intervention group received two sessions per week of point-light display temporal occlusion training with motor practice of the observed bowler’s action over a 4-week period. The control group completed only the testing phases. Batting averages before, during, and after the study were recorded for both groups. The intervention group, but not the control group, improved anticipation to significantly above chance level across pre-to-post-tests based upon pre-ball flight information. The intervention, but not the control, transferred their learning to anticipate significantly above chance level based upon pre-ball flight information across different fast and slow (spin) bowlers. Batting average of the intervention group was higher than the control group during the study. Findings indicate that the intervention can improve anticipation in emerging expert batsmen, beyond sport-specific practice. This improvement may benefit competition performance, but further evidence is required.     

Hitting a cricket ball: what components of the interceptive action are most linked to expertise?

Differences in interceptive skill between highly skilled and lesser skilled cricket batsmen were examined using a batting task that required participants to strike front-foot drive strokes from a machine-projected ball to a specified target. Task difficulty was manipulated by varying the width of the bat (normal, half, and third width) and target accuracy, and quality of bat-ball contact was monitored along with temporal and sequential elements of the hitting action. Analyses revealed that the highly skilled batsmen were distinguishable from less skilled counterparts by their higher accuracy under the normal and half-width bat conditions, significantly earlier initiation and completion of the front-foot stride, greater synchronization of the completion of the front-foot stride with the commencement of the downswing of the bat, and consistent timing of downswing relative to ball bounce and impact. In keeping with studies of other hitting sports, temporal and spatial coupling of the downswing to ball bounce to help minimize temporo-spatial error at the point of interception appeared critical to skilled performance. Implications for the understanding of interception and for coaching practice are briefly discussed.     

Movement patterns in cricket vary by both position and game format

Abstract

We compared the movement patterns of cricketers in different playing positions across three formats of cricket (Twenty20, One Day, multi-day matches). Cricket Australia Centre of Excellence cricketers (n = 42) from five positions (batting, fast bowling, spin bowling, wicketkeeping, and fielding) had their movement patterns (walk, jog, run, stride, and sprint) quantified by global positioning system (GPS) technology over two seasons. Marked differences in movement patterns were evident between positions and game formats, with fast bowlers undertaking the greatest workload of any position in cricket. Fast bowlers sprinted twice as often, covered over three times the distance sprinting, with much smaller work-to-recovery ratios than other positions. Fast bowlers during multi-day matches covered 22.6 ± 4.0 km (mean ± s) total distance in a day (1.4 ± 0.9 km in sprinting). In comparison, wicketkeepers rarely sprinted, despite still covering a daily total distance of 16.6 ± 2.1 km. Overall, One Day and Twenty20 cricket required ～50 to 100% more sprinting per hour than multi-day matches. However, multi-day cricket's longer duration resulted in 16–130% more sprinting per day. In summary, the shorter formats (Twenty20 and One Day) are more intensive per unit of time, but multi-day cricket has a greater overall physical load.     

Biomechanics and visual-motor control: how it has, is, and will be used to reveal the secrets of hitting a cricket ball

Cricket batting is an incredibly complex task which requires the coordination of full-body movements to successfully hit a fast moving ball. Biomechanical studies on batting have helped to shed light on how this intricate skill may be performed, yet the many different techniques exhibited by batters make the systematic examination of batting difficult. This review seeks to critically evaluate the existing literature examining cricket batting, but doing so by exploring the strong but often neglected relationship between biomechanics and visual-motor control. In three separate sections, the paper seeks to address (i) the different theories of motor control which may help to explain how skilled batters can hit a ball, (ii) strategies used by batters to overcome the (at times excessive) temporal constraints, and (iii) an interpretation from a visual-motor perspective of the prevailing biomechanical data on batting.     

Enhancing cricket batting skill: implications for biomechanics and skill acquisition research and practice

This review synthesises the biomechanical and skill acquisition/sport expertise literature focused on the skill of cricket batting. The literature is briefly reviewed and the major limitations, challenges, and suggested future research directions are outlined. This is designed to stimulate researchers to enhance the understanding of cricket batting biomechanics and skill acquisition and in turn assist cricket coaches develop efficacious batting skill development programmes. An interdisciplinary approach between biomechanists and skill acquisition specialists is advocated to further knowledge of the underlying processes and mechanisms of cricket batting expertise. Issues such as skill measurement, practice design, ball machines, skill transfer, the impact of Twenty/20 cricket, video simulation, and skill decomposition are discussed. The ProBatter ball machine systems are introduced along with suggestions for best practice approaches for coaches when designing batting skill development programmes.     

Anthropometric characteristics of elite cricket fast bowlers

The aims of this study were to describe the current anthropometric profiles of elite Australian female and male cricket fast bowlers and establish a set of reference values useful for future investigations on player selection, talent identification, and training programme development. The participants were 26 female (mean age 22.5 years, s = 4.5; height 1.71 m, s = 0.05; body mass 66.2 kg, s = 7.5) and 26 male (mean age 23.9 years, s = 3.5; height 1.88 m, s = 0.05; body mass 87.9 kg, s = 8.2) fast bowlers. The anthropometric profiles included the measurement of skinfolds, and segment lengths, breadths, and girths. A series of derived variables assessing the distribution of subcutaneous adipose tissue, the bivariate overlap zone, relative body size and proportionality, and somatotype were also calculated. The male bowlers had larger length, breadth, and girth measurements than their female counterparts. There were differences in proportionality between the sexes, with only the male bowlers exhibiting characteristics that could be considered "large" relative to height. The female bowlers had a higher sum of seven skinfolds (P < 0.001), were more endomorphic (F(1,50) = 30.18, P < 0.001), and less mesomorphic (F(1,50 = 10.85, P < 0.01) than the male bowlers. These reference data should be useful to practitioners and researchers interested in cricket. Further research is needed to clarify why only male fast bowlers had variables that were proportionally large relative to height.     

Physiological requirements of cricket

Despite its long history and global appeal, relatively little is known about the physiological and other requirements of cricket. It has been suggested that the physiological demands of cricket are relatively mild, except in fast bowlers during prolonged bowling spells in warm conditions. However, the physiological demands of cricket may be underestimated because of the intermittent nature of the activity and the generally inadequate understanding of the physiological demands of intermittent activity. Here, we review published studies of the physiology of cricket. We propose that no current model used to analyse the nature of exercise fatigue (i.e. the cardiovascular-anaerobic model, the energy supply-energy depletion model, the muscle power-muscle recruitment model) can adequately explain the fatigue experienced during cricket. A study of players in the South African national cricket team competing in the 1999 Cricket World Cup revealed that, in a variety of measures of explosive ('anaerobic') power and aerobic endurance capacity, they were as 'fit' as South African national rugby players competing in the 1999 Rugby World Cup. Yet, outwardly, the physiological demands of rugby would seem to be far greater than those of cricket. This poses the question: 'Why are these international cricketers so fit if the physiological demands of cricket are apparently so mild?' One possibility is that this specific group of athletes are unusually proficient in a variety of sports; many achieved high standards of performance in other sports, including rugby, before choosing to specialize in cricket. Hence their apparently high fitness may simply reflect a superior genetic physical endowment, necessary to achieve success in modern international sports, including cricket. Alternatively, it could be hypothesized that superior power and endurance fitness may be required to cope with the repeated eccentric muscle contractions required in turning and in bowling and which may account for fatigue and risk of injury in cricket. If this is the case, the fitness of cricketers may be increased and their risk of injury reduced by more specific eccentric exercise training programmes.     

The science and medicine of cricket: an overview and update

Research into the science and medicine underlying cricket performance and injury has progressed since the First World Congress of Science and Medicine in Cricket in 1999. This review covers material on the physiological and psychological demands of the game and preparation for it, the biomechanics and motor control of cricket skills, the psychology of team dynamics, performance analysis and cricket injuries. Technological aspects of cricket equipment are also covered, where such research could influence injury risk or player performance. Fielding remains the least studied of the skills. Much more research needs to be done before we can gain a full understanding of the scientific aspects of the game. There is a need to address common definitions of injury, along with more research into injury mechanisms. Research on batting needs to bring together motor control and biomechanics more fully. The fitness demands of the game are still poorly understood, along with the mechanisms causing fatigue. Evaluation of the efficacy of intervention strategies needs to continue and to develop. The applications of research need to be communicated more to coaches and players--for example, in team dynamics--so that they can be applied, and tested further, in international matches.     

An overview of cricket ball swing

The aerodynamic properties of a cricket ball have intrigued cricket players and spectators for years, arguably since the advent of the game itself. The main interest is in the fact that the ball can follow a curved flight path that may not always be under the control of the bowler. The basic aerodynamic principles responsible for the nonlinear flight or ‘swing’ of a cricket ball were identified decades ago and many papers have been published on the subject. Over the last 25 years or so, several empirical investigations have also been conducted on cricket ball swing, which revealed the amount of attainable swing and identified the parameters that affect it. Those findings are reviewed here with emphasis on phenomena such as late swing and the effects of humidity on swing. The relatively new concept of ‘reverse swing’, how it can be achieved in practice, and the role in it of ‘ball tampering’, are also discussed in detail. In particular, the ability of some bowlers to effectively swing an old ball in the conventional, reverse and the newly termed ‘contrast’ swing mode is addressed. A discussion of the ‘white” cricket ball used in the 1999 and 2003 World Cup tournaments, which supposedly possesses different swing properties compared to a conventional red ball, is also included. This is a current overview of cricket ball swing rather than a detailed review of all research work performed on the topic. The emphasis is on presenting scientific explanations for the various aerodynamic phenomena that affect cricket ball swing on a cricket ground.     

Physiological requirements of cricket

Despite its long history and global appeal, relatively little is known about the physiological and other requirements of cricket. It has been suggested that the physiological demands of cricket are relatively mild, except in fast bowlers during prolonged bowling spells in warm conditions. However, the physiological demands of cricket may be underestimated because of the intermittent nature of the activity and the generally inadequate understanding of the physiological demands of intermittent activity. Here, we review published studies of the physiology of cricket. We propose that no current model used to analyse the nature of exercise fatigue (i.e. the cardiovascular–anaerobic model, the energy supply–energy depletion model, the muscle power–muscle recruitment model) can adequately explain the fatigue experienced during cricket. A study of players in the South African national cricket team competing in the 1999 Cricket World Cup revealed that, in a variety of measures of explosive ('anaerobic') power and aerobic endurance capacity, they were as 'fit' as South African national rugby players competing in the 1999 Rugby World Cup. Yet, outwardly, the physiological demands of rugby would seem to be far greater than those of cricket. This poses the question: 'Why are these international cricketers so fit if the physiological demands of cricket are apparently so mild?' One possibility is that this specific group of athletes are unusually proficient in a variety of sports; many achieved high standards of performance in other sports, including rugby, before choosing to specialize in cricket. Hence their apparently high fitness may simply reflect a superior genetic physical endowment, necessary to achieve success in modern international sports, including cricket. Alternatively, it could be hypothesized that superior power and endurance fitness may be required to cope with the repeated eccentric muscle contractions required in turning and in bowling and which may account for fatigue and risk of injury in cricket. If this is the case, the fitness of cricketers may be increased and their risk of injury reduced by more specific eccentric exercise training programmes.     

The science and medicine of cricket: an overview and update

Abstract

Research into the science and medicine underlying cricket performance and injury has progressed since the First World Congress of Science and Medicine in Cricket in 1999. This review covers material on the physiological and psychological demands of the game and preparation for it, the biomechanics and motor control of cricket skills, the psychology of team dynamics, performance analysis and cricket injuries. Technological aspects of cricket equipment are also covered, where such research could influence injury risk or player performance. Fielding remains the least studied of the skills. Much more research needs to be done before we can gain a full understanding of the scientific aspects of the game. There is a need to address common definitions of injury, along with more research into injury mechanisms. Research on batting needs to bring together motor control and biomechanics more fully. The fitness demands of the game are still poorly understood, along with the mechanisms causing fatigue. Evaluation of the efficacy of intervention strategies needs to continue and to develop. The applications of research need to be communicated more to coaches and players — for example, in team dynamics — so that they can be applied, and tested further, in international matches.