Do the physical and environment PETTLEP elements predict sport imagery ability?

The present study aimed to examine whether physical and environment elements of PETTLEP imagery relate to the ability to image five types of sport imagery (i.e. skill, strategy, goal, affect and mastery). Two hundred and ninety participants (152 males, 148 females; M_age?=?20.24 years, SD?=?4.36) from various sports completed the Sport Imagery Ability Questionnaire (SIAQ), and a set of items designed specifically for the study to assess how frequently participants incorporate physical (e.g. ‘I make small movements or gestures during the imagery’) and environment (e.g. ‘I image in the real training/competition environment’) elements of PETTLEP imagery. Structural equation modelling tested a hypothesised model in which imagery priming (i.e. the best fitting physical and environment elements) significantly and positively predicted imagery ability of the different imagery types (skill, β?=?0.38; strategy, β?=?0.23; goal, β?=?0.21; affect, β?=?0.25; mastery, β?=?0.22). The model was a good fit to the data: χ² (174)?=?263.87, p?<?.001, CFI?=?.96, TLI?=?.95, SRMR?=?.09, RMSEA?=?0.05 (90% CI?=?0.03–0.05). Findings displayed that priming imagery with physical and environment elements is associated with better skill, strategy, goal, affect and mastery imagery ability. The findings extend models of imagery use by indicating that how athletes images may influence their imagery ability.     

竞赛自信及竞赛焦虑与注意指向:探点反应时实验的提示

根据Ｓｐｉｅｌｂｅｒｇｅｒ＾「１」关于认知评价与焦虑反应关系的 临床心理关于威胁指向性注意的研究成果,研究假设,在内隐认知的层次上,将注意更多地指向威肋性信息,是低部赛特质自信和高竞赛特质焦虑的特点之一;将注意更多地指向积极性信息,是高竞赛特质自信和低竞赛特质焦虑的特点之一。对４０名运动员进行的探点反应时实验表明,高竞赛躯体焦虑运动员的主要注意特征表现为较少关注积极信息。注意指向未能有效地预测竞赛     

Implicit beliefs of ability,approach-avoidance goals and cognitive anxiety among team sport athletes

Abstract

People's implicit beliefs of ability have been suggested as an antecedent of achievement goal adoption, which has in turn been associated with behavioural, cognitive and affective outcomes. This study examined a conditional process model with team sport athletes' approach-avoidance achievement goals as mediators between their implicit beliefs of sport ability and sport-related cognitive anxiety. We expected gender to moderate the paths from implicit beliefs of ability to approach-avoidance goals and from approach-avoidance goals to cognitive anxiety. Team sport athletes with a mean age of 20 years (163 females and 152 males) responded to questionnaires about their implicit beliefs of sport ability, approach-avoidance goals and sport-related cognitive anxiety. Incremental beliefs, gender and the interaction between them predicted mastery-approach goals. Gender also predicted mastery-avoidance goals, with females reporting higher levels than males. Mastery-avoidance goals, gender and the interaction between them predicted cognitive anxiety, with females reporting higher levels of anxiety than males. Entity beliefs positively predicted performance-avoidance goals and the interaction between performance-approach and gender predicted anxiety. The indirect effects also showed gender differences in relation to performance-approach goals. Taken together, our results suggest that coaches trying to create a facilitating climate for their male and female athletes may be wise to consider their athletes' anxiety and achievement goal patterns as these may affect both the athletes' well-being and performance.     

Examining the relationships between challenge and threat cognitive appraisals and coaching behaviours in football coaches

Previous research demonstrates that sports coaching is a stressful activity. This article investigates coaches’ challenge and threat cognitive appraisals of stressful situations and their impact on coaching behaviour, using Blascovich and Mendes’ (2000) biopsychosocial model as a theoretical framework. A cross-sectional correlational design was utilised to examine the relationships between irrational beliefs (Shortened general attitude and belief scale), challenge and threat appraisals (Appraisal of life events scale), and coaching behaviours (Leadership scale for sports) of 105 professional football academy coaches. Findings reveal significant positive associations between challenge appraisals and social support, and between threat appraisals and autocratic behaviour, and a significant negative association between threat appraisals and positive feedback. Results also show that higher irrational beliefs are associated with greater threat, and lesser challenge cognitive appraisals. However, no associations were revealed between irrational beliefs and challenge cognitive appraisals. Additionally, findings demonstrate a positive relationship between age and training and instruction. Results suggest that practitioners should help coaches to appraise stressful situations as a challenge to promote positive coaching behaviours.     

Measuring athlete imagery ability: the sport imagery ability questionnaire

This research aimed to develop and provide initial validation of the Sport Imagery Ability Questionnaire (SIAQ). The SIAQ assesses athletes' ease of imaging different types of imagery content. Following an extensive pilot study, 375 athletes completed a 20-item SIAQ in Study 1. Exploratory factor analysis revealed a 4-factor model assessing skill, strategy, goal, and affect imagery ability. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) established this 4-factor structure in Study 2 (N = 363 athletes). In Study 3 (N = 438 athletes), additional items were added to create a fifth mastery imagery subscale that was confirmed through CFA. Study 4 (N = 220 athletes) compared the SIAQ to the Movement Imagery Questionnaire-3. Significant bivariate correlations (p < .05) confirmed the SIAQ's concurrent validity but demonstrated differences in imagery ability of different content. Overall, the SIAQ demonstrates good factorial validity, internal and temporal reliability, invariance across gender, and an ability to distinguish among athletes of different competitive levels. Findings highlight the importance of separately assessing imagery ability of different content.     

Handling of medical knowledge in sport: Athletes' medical opinions,information seeking behaviours and knowledge sources

Medical care in sport comprises a variety of treatments, from scientifically proven biomedicine to complementary and alternative medicine. Information and knowledge about these diverse treatment options is spread by different sources. Thus, athletes encounter information of varying content, quality and background. This exploratory pilot study addresses athletes' medical opinions, their health-related information seeking behaviour and the knowledge sources they utilise. Questionnaires were used to examine n = 110 German athletes (n_male = 69, n_female = 41; mean_age = 24.28 ± 4.97 years) at high performance levels (national team and/or European championship and/or World championship n = 22; first national league and/or German championship n = 51, second national league and/or State championship n = 37) from various Olympic sports. A cluster analysis regarding the athletes' attitudes towards sport medicine exhibited four different types of athletes: ‘the autonomous athlete’, ‘the open-minded athlete’, ‘the functionalistic athlete’ and ‘the conservative athlete’. In general, our findings show that the most used and trusted information sources are physicians and physiotherapists. However, medical information is trusted the most if it is experience- and field-tested, and comes from the athletes' sport-specific network. Our findings also suggest that professional medical knowledge management in competitive sport is needed.     

Assessing what generates precompetitive emotions: development of the precompetitive appraisal measure

Athletes’ precompetitive appraisal determines which emotion they experience with regard to an upcoming competition. Such precompetitive emotions have powerful and potentially destructive consequences for performance. To control and optimise these consequences, it is important to examine precompetitive appraisal. Currently, such efforts are hampered by the lack of a valid measurement tool. The present study aimed to develop a novel measure of precompetitive appraisal. Specifically, the Precompetitive Appraisal Measure (PAM) was constructed by adapting an existing self-report scale. Female and male intercollegiate team sport athletes (N = 384) completed the PAM, along with a measure of intensity and interpretation of precompetitive anxiety symptoms (CSAI-2D) prior to competition. On these responses, (a) a Principal Component Analysis and a Confirmatory Factor Analysis supported the PAM’s suggested two-factor structure (Primary and Secondary Appraisal), (b) cluster analyses indicated the measure’s ability to distinguish theoretically congruent appraisal profiles (Threat and Challenge) and (c) a MANOVA and multiple regression analyses demonstrated that PAM-responses predicted precompetitive symptom intensity and interpretation. Further, analyses revealed that the majority of athletes appraised the upcoming competition as a challenge.     

Cognitive and affective components of challenge and threat states

Abstract

We explored the cognitive and affective components of the Theory of Challenge and Threat States in Athletes (TCTSA) using a cross-sectional design. One hundred and seventy-seven collegiate athletes indicated how they typically approached an important competition on measures of self-efficacy, perceived control, achievement goals, emotional states and interpretation of emotional states. Participants also indicated to what extent they typically perceived the important competition as a challenge and/or a threat. The results suggest that a perception of challenge was not predicted by any of the cognitive components. A perception of threat was positively predicted by avoidance goals and negatively predicted by self-efficacy and approach goals. Both challenge and threat had a positive relationship with anxiety. Practical implications of this study are that an avoidance orientation appeared to be related to potentially negative constructs such as anxiety, threat and dejection. The findings may suggest that practitioners and researchers should focus on reducing an avoidance orientation, however the results should be treated with caution in applied settings, as this study did not examine how the combination of constructs exactly influences sport performance. The results provided partial support for the TCTSA with stronger support for proposed relationships with threat rather than challenge states.     

Pre-competition imagery,self-efficacy and performance in collegiate golfers

In this study, we examined the relationships between self-efficacy, pre-competition imagery use and performance. A modified version of the Sport Imagery Questionnaire was used to assess both the motivational and cognitive functions of imagery used by 51 varsity golfers during the hour before a Provincial University Golf Championship. In line with Martin and co-workers' model of imagery use in sport, we hypothesized that self-efficacy would be positively related to motivational general-mastery imagery use and motivational generalmastery imagery use would be predictive of golf performance. Also, consistent with theorizing by Bandura, we hypothesized that self-efficacy would predict golf performance, but that the relationship between self-efficacy and performance would be mediated by imagery use. The results of hierarchical multiple regression analyses revealed that pre-competition motivational general-mastery imagery accounted for significant variance in both self-efficacy (adjusted R 2 = 0.26, P ? 0.01) and performance (adjusted R 2 = 0.31, P ? 0.01). The results also indicated that self-efficacy was predictive of golf performance and that motivational general-mastery imagery use mediated the relationship between self-efficacy and performance. The results are discussed in relation to athletes' pre-competition preparation and intervention.     

The Functional Equivalence Between Movement Imagery,Observation, and Execution Influences Imagery Ability

Abstract

Based on literature identifying movement imagery, observation, and execution to elicit similar areas of neural activity, research has demonstrated that movement imagery and observation successfully prime movement execution. To investigate whether movement and observation could prime ease of imaging from an external visual-imagery perspective, an internal visual-imagery perspective, and kinesthetic modality, 36 participants (M age = 20.58; SD = 3.11; 18 women and 18 men) completed an adapted version of the Movement Imagery Questionnaire-Revised under four modes of delivery (movement prime, external observation prime, internal observation prime, and image-only). The results revealed that ease of imaging was significantly greater during the movement and observation prime conditions compared to the image-only condition (p < .05). Specifically when priming external visual imagery and internal visual imagery, observation facilitated ease of imaging only when the perspective was congruent with the imagery perspective. The results support the use of movement and observation to facilitate ease of imaging, but highlight the importance of considering the visual perspective when using observation.     

The biomechanics of soccer: A review

Abstract

The purpose of this investigation was to determine whether combining two mental preparation strategies would be more effective in enhancing performances than a single strategy. Subjects (n = 40) practiced on a basketball free throw task (20 shots) using one of the following mental preparation strategies: (a) imagery, (b) relaxation, (c) relaxation plus imagery, (d) placebo control. To simulate game conditions, subjects were allowed only 10 s in which to use their mental preparation strategy. After the practice session, subjects shot 20 test free throws using their designated technique. Results indicated a significant main effect with the imagery group performing significantly better than the placebo control group although there were no specific differences between the three experimental groups. The results are discussed in terms of potential variables mediating the effectiveness of imagery in enhancing sport performance, and future directions for research are offered.     

Getting to the heart of the matter: A diary study of swimmers’ appraisals of organisational stressors

Abstract

We explored sport performers’ cognitive appraisals of organisational stressors. The relevant demands and transactional alternatives that athletes experience in relation to the situational properties were identified. Thirteen national standard swimmers completed semi-structured, interval-contingent daily diaries for a 28-day period. A combination of inductive and deductive content analysis was used to organise and analyse the diary entries with a focus on the following areas: organisational stressors, their underlying situational properties, and the swimmers’ transactional alternatives. One hundred and thirty-one of the organisational stressors were appraised as threat, 41 as challenge, and 83 as harm/loss. Support was found for the majority of Lazarus and Folkman's (1984) situational properties with the only exception being temporal uncertainty. Imminence was associated with the greatest number of threat appraisals (47), novelty was associated with the greatest number of challenge appraisals (17), and duration was associated with the greatest number of harm/loss appraisals (22). It is concluded that appraisal plays a pivotal role in sport performers’ experiences of their organisational environment. Swimmers’ transactional alternatives are influenced by the situational properties of the stressors encountered.     

Antecedents of Emotions in Elite Athletes

Cognitive motivational relational theory suggests that cognitive appraisals or core relational themes (a composite summary of appraisal components) represent the proximal determinants of athletes' emotions. Semistructured interviews with 12 current international athletes (1 woman and 11 men) ages 19 to 37 years (M age = 27 years, SD = 6.03), representing a range of sports (badminton, golf, rugby union, athletics, archery, sailing, and snooker) explored the association between athletes' appraisals and emotions. Concurrent inductive and deductive content analyses suggested that primary and secondary appraisal components (goal relevance, goal congruence, ego-involvement, blame/credit, coping potential, future expectations) were associated with a range of emotions: anger, anxiety, guilt, happiness, pride, relief, sadness, and shame. A hierarchical content analysis provided some support for Lazarus' (1991) core relational themes. Limitations and applications of this study are discussed.     

Prestige and Regional Mobility of Doctoral Faculty in Graduate Departments of Physical Education

Abstract

Positive values for fairness in competition are supposed to undergird the behavior of athletes engaged in sport. Whether athletes' values actually develop over 4 years in a college that emphasizes character development is the focus of this study. Athletes' (N = 631) use of deontological ethics (Hahm, Beller &; Stoll, 1989) in 21 sports value dilemmas were evaluated. At entrance, as well as near graduation, intercollegiate athletes' value scores were lower than intramural athletes' scores. Both groups' scores declined while they were in college. Individual-sport athletes had higher scores than team-sport athletes but manifested a greater decline over 4 years. The findings are consistent with other studies that show decreases in “sportsmanship orientation” and an increase in “professional” attitudes associated with participation in sport.     

Sport commitment and participation in masters swimmers: The influence of coach and teammates

Abstract

This study investigated how coach and teammates influence masters athletes' sport commitment, and the effect of functional and obligatory commitments on participation in masters swimming. The sample consisted of 523 masters swimmers (330 males and 193 females) aged between 22 and 83 years (M = 39.00, SD = 10.42). A bi-dimensional commitment scale was used to measure commitment dimensions and perceived influence from social agents. Structural equation modelling analysis was conducted to evaluate the influence of social agents on functional and obligatory commitments, and the predictive capabilities of the two types of commitment towards sport participation. Support provided by coach and teammates increased functional commitment, constraints from these social agents determined higher obligatory commitment, and coach constraints negatively impacted functional commitment. In addition, both commitment types predicted training participation, with functional commitment increasing participation in team training sessions, and obligatory commitment increasing the hours of individual training. The findings suggest that in order to increase participation in masters swimming teams and reduce non-supervised training, coach and teammates should exhibit a supportive attitude and avoid over expectation.     

运动自信对不同等级运动员运动成绩的影响

目的:通过对不同等级运动员运动自信心与运动成绩关系的研究,探讨运动自信对不同运动等级运动员成绩的影响。方法:以参加2004年度全国各专项锦标赛的广东运动技术学院的692名运动员为研究对象,采用运动员自信心测量问卷对不同等级运动员进行运动自信心的测量,并将测量结果与运动员成绩进行相应的相关分析和回归分析。结果:运动自信与运动成绩之间存在相关关系(P<0.01),其中,技能掌握自信、技能演示自信与运动成绩之间存在较显著的正相关关系(P<0.001),对教练能力的信心和对比赛情景的自信与运动成绩之间存在显著的正相关关系(P<0.05);技能掌握自信、技能演示自信、对教练能力的信心和对比赛情景的自信均是运动成绩的重要预测因子。结论:运动员自信中技能掌握自信、技能演示自信、对教练能力的信心和对比赛情景的自信对运动成绩具有重要影响,因此在日常训练中应注意根据不同等级运动员,调整有关运动自信培养的工作重点。     

Longitudinal emotional process among adolescent soccer player in intensive training centre

ABSTRACT

Grounded in Lazarus’s (1999) cognitive motivational relational theory of emotions, this study aimed to explore longitudinal relationships between appraisals, everyday emotions related to the competitive environment and emotional regulation strategies during a competitive season. Forty adolescent soccer players (Mage = 15.8) involved in an intensive training centre from a professional club voluntarily participated to the study. A series of hierarchical linear modelling analyses were conducted upon the 9 measurement times to: (a) examine the relationships between appraisals (threat, challenge, loss), pleasant (happiness, excitement) and unpleasant (anxiety, dejection, anger) emotions, and emotional regulation strategies (adaptive and less adaptive); and (b) ascertain whether the relationships between appraisals and emotions were mediated by emotion regulation strategies. The results of the random coefficient regression models showed: (a) positive relationships between challenge appraisal, adaptive emotion regulation, and pleasant emotions as well as between threat and loss appraisals, less adaptive emotion regulation and unpleasant emotions; and (b) mediating effects of emotional regulation strategies in the appraisals – emotions relationships. As a whole, this study furthered knowledge base about the competitive environment in showing that appraisals, emotion regulation and emotions are intertwined psychological constructs in a dynamic relationship allowing athletes to continuously adjust to their constantly changing everyday demands.     

Physical activity for health

Abstract

The purpose of this study was twofold: (a) to examine the stressors experienced by injured athletes during three phases of their recovery from sport injury, and (b) to explore the differences in the stressors experienced by team as compared to individual-sport athletes. Participants comprised previously injured high-level rugby union players (n = 5) and golfers (n = 5). Semi-structured interviews were used to explore the stressors participants experienced during three phases of injury (onset, rehabilitation and return to competitive sport). Within- and cross-case analyses showed that athletes experienced sport, medical/physical, social and financial stressors. There were a number of differences in the stressors experienced across the three phases and between team and individual-sport athletes. Findings have important implications for the design and implementation of interventions aimed at managing the potentially stressful sport injury experience and facilitating injured athletes' return to competitive sport.     

The functional equivalence between movement imagery, observation, and execution influences imagery ability

Based on literature identifying movement imagery, observation, and execution to elicit similar areas of neural activity, research has demonstrated that movement imagery and observation successfully prime movement execution. To investigate whether movement and observation could prime ease of imaging from an external visual-imagery perspective, an internal visual-imagery perspective, and kinesthetic modality, 36 participants (M age = 20.58; SD = 3.11; 18 women and 18 men) completed an adapted version of the Movement Imagery Questionnaire-Revised under four modes of delivery (movement prime, external observation prime, internal observation prime, and image-only). The results revealed that ease of imaging was significantly greater during the movement and observation prime conditions compared to the image-only condition (p < .05). Specifically when priming external visual imagery and internal visual imagery, observation facilitated ease of imaging only when the perspective was congruent with the imagery perspective. The results support the use of movement and observation to facilitate ease of imaging, but highlight the importance of considering the visual perspective when using observation.     

Coach strategies for addressing psychosocial challenges during the return to sport from injury

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to examine coach strategies for addressing athletes' psychosocial challenges in returning to sport following injury rehabilitation. Qualitative interviews with eight elite coaches from the Western Australian Institute of Sport (WAIS) in Perth, Australia revealed that coaches facilitated athletes' return to sport from injury through a variety of means, but did not typically provide systematic forms of assistance. Coaches commented that the idiosyncratic nature of the injury experience meant that they needed to apply strategies consistent with athletes' particular psychosocial needs. Such strategies included: (a) coordination of a “team approach” to rehabilitation; (b) fostering open communication with athletes and treatment team members; (c) social support; (d) positive thinking and goal setting; and (e) role models. Analysis of these strategies revealed that coaches attempted to address competence, autonomy, and relatedness needs in facilitating athletes' return from injury. These findings suggest that self-determination theory may be a valuable approach for examining coach forms of assistance regarding athletes' return to competition following injury. Findings are discussed in relation to injury literature and self-determination theory. Suggestions for future research are also presented.