文化图式理论在口译中的运用

图式理论认为,人们在认识和理解新事物、吸收输入信息的时候,需要将新事物和输入信息与头脑中的已知信息、过去的经历联系起来。图式是人的头脑中关于外部世界的有序的知识系统。口译中的跨文化交际过程是口译中文化图式重建的过程。因此译员要注意口译中的文化差异,善于重建文化图式,培养和加强跨文化语用意识。     

Toward a theory of experiential instruction

Attention to experiential instruction is needed if the learning process is not to be left totally to chance. This paper proposes a theory of experiential instruction based on ideas of Jerome Bruner. Four general requirements of a theory of instruction (attention to the learner's predisposition to learning, appropriate structuring of knowledge, meaningful sequencing of concepts and timely feedback) are examined in light of the instructional role in experiential settings. The discussion concludes with a call for research and development to refine and improve the practice of experiential instruction.This paper will appear in somewhat different form in a volume tentatively entitled Service-Learning in Higher Education: A Guide for Faculty, currently being prepared for the National Student Volunteer Program, a part of ACTION. The author extends his appreciation to NSVP staff for permission to adapt ideas originally developed for work contracted to NSVP. The ideas and opinions in this paper do not necessarily reflect the position or policy of NSVP, ACTION or the Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, and no official endorsement should be inferred.This article is based on a presentation at the 1978 SFEE/NCPSIP annual convention.     

Toward a rhetorical theory of deixis

This article advances a rhetorical theory of deixis, a theoretical and methodological orientation that infuses the linguistic concept of deixis with rhetorical understandings of ethos, place, and time. Deixis reveals the rhetorical dynamics within the fabric of spoken discourse, dynamics that often refer to what is outside the text to make sense of what is within it. Ultimately, I argue that identifying the deictic indicators within a speech text enables the critic to pinpoint where, how, and why a speaker activates the physical elements of the speech situation as a material means of persuasion. After outlining the theoretical tenets of this approach, I analyze Harry S. Truman's Address to the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People on June 29, 1947, to show how a rhetorical theory of deixis orients the critic to the bodies, places, and temporalities implied in and displayed through speech.     

图式理论在小学英语听力教学中的应用

听力作为外部语言转换为内部语言的主要输入方式之一,在小学英语教学阶段有着十分重要的地位。本文从图式理论与听力理解关系的角度,提出目前小学英语听力教学中存在的主要问题,解析图式理论对于听力教学的启示,并探讨其在小学听力教学过程听前、听中、听后三个阶段的实践和应用。     

Toward a design theory of problem solving

Problem solving is generally regarded as the most important cognitive activity in everyday and professional contexts. Most people are required to and rewarded for solving problems. However, learning to solve problems is too seldom required in formal educational settings, in part, because our understanding of its processes is limited. Instructional-design research and theory has devoted too little attention to the study of problem-solving processes. In this article, I describe differences among problems in terms of their structuredness, domain specificity (abstractness), and complexity. Then, I briefly describe a variety of individual differences (factors internal to the problem solver) that affect problem solving. Finally, I articulate a typology of problems, each type of which engages different cognitive, affective, and conative processes and therefore necessitates different instructional support. The purpose of this paper is to propose a metatheory of problem solving in order to initiate dialogue and research rather than offering a definitive answer regarding its processes. This paper represents an effort to introduce issues and concerns related to problem solving to the instructional design community. I do not presume that the community is ignorant of problem solving or its literature, only that too little effort has been expended by the field in articulating design models for problem solving. There are many reasons for that state of affairs. The curse of any introductory paper is the lack of depth in the treatment of these issues. To explicate each of the issues raised in this paper would require a book (which is forthcoming), which makes it unpublishable in a journal. My purpose here is to introduce these issues in order to stimulate discussion, research, and development of problem-solving instruction that will help us to articulate better design models.     

Cognitive efficiency: Toward a revised theory of media

Within and beyond the field of educational technology, Richard Clark's writings are widely believed to have shown that any number of media are equally capable of delivering any instruction, so that media choices are about cost and efficiency but not about cognition and learning (Clark, 1983; 1994b). However, if it is accepted that one type of efficiency is cognitive efficiency, then it follows that media choices are often about cognition and learning and can profit from an understanding of cognitive processes. Media and learning can then be reconnected in limited ways that do not compromise any of Clark's main points, and doing this will bring media work into line with current research into the role of surface information codes.     

Moving beyond Mozert: Toward a democratic theory of education

Most liberal political theorists of education argue that it is better to teach students to tolerate diversity, than to protect the potentially illiberal commitments of some members of the political communities. In fact, neither approach is wholly satisfying, yet they remain the focus of much political theorizing about education. This article suggests that this misguided focus is, in part, a consequence of a focus, by liberal political theorists of education, upon the 1987 Mozert v. Hawkins court case. Mozert raised serious questions about the nature of toleration in liberal society, but from an educational standpoint, the Mozert case led political theorists to consider what curricular content is appropriate for liberal political education, rather than on the practices that democratic citizens must cultivate. I turn to Hannah Arendt to offer a critical account of the liberal responses to Mozert and then call for a theory of democratic education that fosters practices of democratic decision-making and has, as its aim, not merely to foster respect for diversity, but to allow future citizens to practice critical engagement with diversity.     

Toward a theory of teaching: A social learning view

Two hypotheses were investigated: Do teachers spontaneously use modeling techniques during instruction, and are teachers who are trained to use these procedures more effective? Twenty-four teachers attempted to instruct a like number of 5-year-olds to seriate length. Twelve additional youngsters served as uninstructed controls. Untrained teachers made little use of modeling techniques and were generally ineffective. Trained teachers were significantly more effective than their untrained counterparts. Teacher use of specific modeling behaviors correlated with teaching success. The results were discussed from a Social Learning Theory view of teaching.     

Elaboration theory and cognitive psychology

Increasingly, instructional literature is pointing out the need for theories of instruction which are consistent with emerging cognitive psychology. Theory construction of this sort entails taking into account developing notions of the learner as a processor of information rather than a respondent to stimuli. The purpose of this article is to describe a recent instructional effort, referred to as the Elaboration Theory of Instruction (ETI), and chart its correspondence with several major principles drawn from contemporary cognitive psychology. The ETI incorporates models for both the sequencing and structuring of subject matter. The article will show how these components relate to current models of knowledge representation, schema theory, memory processes such as storage and retrieval, and earlier cognitive based instructional frameworks.     

Motivation and social cognitive theory

This article discusses motivation from the perspective of Bandura’s social cognitive theory. Motivation refers to processes that instigate and sustain goal-directed activities. Motivational processes are personal/internal influences that lead to outcomes such as choice, effort, persistence, achievement, and environmental regulation. Motivation has been a prominent feature of social cognitive theory from the early modeling research to the current conception involving agency. The conceptual framework of reciprocal interactions is discussed, after which research is summarized on behavioral, environmental, and personal influences on motivation. Key internal motivational processes are goals and self-evaluations of progress, self-efficacy, social comparisons, values, outcome expectations, attributions, and self-regulation. Critical issues confronting the theory include diversity and culture, methodology, and long-term effects of interventions. The article concludes with additional recommendations for future research on contexts, conceptual clarity, and technology.     

Toward a renaissance in curriculum theory and development in the USA

The curriculum field in the USA has existed in a chronic state of disarray, even crisis, for many years. This study considers whether the field's 'reconceptualization' has alleviated the signs of crisis articulated some 30 years ago by Joseph Schwab. It concludes by suggesting that four issues should be examined in order to establish a vital sense of community among curriculum scholars and to create favourable conditions for a renaissance in the US scholarly field of curriculum theory and development.     

具身认知的情绪理论

对情绪的研究中,具身认知理论不同于传统的认知心理学观点,它认为情绪过程中混合着包括肌肉、神经、大脑皮层等身体变化,身体的变化可以显著的改变情绪或者和情绪相关的认知、决策等过程,并且表情、身体姿势等也是情绪形成,情绪的理解,和情绪识别等过程中重要的一环,并且会影响个体的选择偏好,决策,和语言理解等行为。