“I am” versus “we are”: Effects of distinctive variants of self-talk on efficacy beliefs and motor performance

Abstract

Before completing a team-based dart-throwing activity, 80 undergraduates were randomly assigned to one of three pre-performance self-talk conditions: (a) self-talk statements that focused upon one's personal capabilities, (b) self-talk statements emphasizing the group's capabilities, or (c) a control condition where neutral statements were implemented. Participants in all conditions subsequently rated their confidence in their own (i.e. self-efficacy) as well as their team's (i.e. collective efficacy) capabilities, before carrying out the task. Overall, self-efficacy, collective efficacy, and performance indicators were all greatest for individuals who practised self-talk focusing on the group's capabilities, as opposed to individual-focused and neutral conditions. Findings are considered with respect to their novel theoretical contribution to the social cognition literature and their implications for fostering efficacy perceptions and team performance.     

"Yes, we can!": Perceptions of collective efficacy sources in volleyball

Collective efficacy can be defined as a group's shared confidence that they will successfully achieve their goal. We examined which behaviours and events are perceived as sources of collective efficacy beliefs in a volleyball context. In study 1, volleyball coaches from the highest volleyball leagues (n = 33) in Belgium indicated the most important sources of collective efficacy. This list was then adapted based on the literature and on feedback given by an expert focus group, resulting in a 40-item questionnaire. In Study 2, coaches and players from all levels of volleyball in Belgium (n = 2365) rated each of these sources on their predictive value for collective efficacy. A principal component analysis revealed that the 40 sources could be divided into eight internally consistent factors. Positive supportive communication (e.g., enthusiasm after making a point) was identified as the factor most predictive for positive collective efficacy beliefs. The factor referring to the negative emotional reactions of players (e.g., discouraging body language) was the most predictive for negative collective efficacy beliefs. These findings offer a starting point for the design of continuous measurements of collective efficacy through observation.     

Relationships between cohesion, collective efficacy and performance in professional basketball teams: an examination of mediating effects

The main aim of this study was to examine mediating effects in the relationships between cohesion, collective efficacy and performance in professional basketball teams. A secondary aim was to examine the correlates of collective efficacy in a professional sport. A total of 154 French and foreign professional players completed French or English versions of questionnaires about cohesion and collective efficacy. Two composite measures of individual performance were used (pre- and post-performance). Individual-level analyses were performed. Regression analyses supported two mediating relationships with collective efficacy as a mediator of the pre-performance - Group integration-task relationship, and Group integration-task as a mediator of the pre-performance - collective efficacy relationship. Statistical analyses indicated that neither Group integration-task nor collective efficacy was a better mediator in the relationship between pre-performance and the other group variables. Results also revealed positive relationships between three dimensions of cohesion (i.e. Individual attractions to the group-task, Group integration-task, Group integration-social) and collective efficacy. These findings suggest that in professional basketball teams, staff members should look after athletes who perform at a lower or below their usual level because their performances might lead them into a downward cohesion - collective efficacy spiral. Staff members should also develop a high quality of group functioning, both on and off the basketball court, given its relationship with collective efficacy.     

Effects of self-talk: a systematic review

This article presents a systematic review of the literature examining the relationship between self-talk and performance. "Second-generation questions" regarding potential mediators and moderators of the self-talk-performance relationship were also examined. A total of 47 studies were analyzed. Results indicated beneficial effects of positive, instructional, and motivational self-talk for performance. Somewhat surprisingly, two evidence-based challenges to popular current viewpoints on self-talk emerged. First, negative self-talk did not impede performance. Second, there was inconsistent evidence for the differential effects of instructional and motivational self-talk based on task characteristics. Results from the mediation-based analysis indicate that cognitive and behavioral factors had the most consistent relationships with self-talk. The findings are discussed in the context of recent theoretical advances, and the article includes recommendations for future research (e.g., the use of designs allowing the testing of meditational hypotheses) and for current applied practice (e.g., avoiding the use of thought-stopping techniques).     

Tripartite efficacy profiles: a cluster analytic investigation of athletes' perceptions of their relationship with their coach

Recent studies of coach-athlete interaction have explored the bivariate relationships between each of the tripartite efficacy constructs (self-efficacy; other-efficacy; relation-inferred self-efficacy, or RISE) and various indicators of relationship quality. This investigation adopted an alternative approach by using cluster analyses to identify tripartite efficacy profiles within a sample of 377 individual sport athletes (Mage = 20.25, SD = 2.12), and examined how individuals in each cluster group differed in their perceptions about their relationship with their coach (i.e., commitment, satisfaction, conflict). Four clusters emerged: High (n = 128), Moderate (n = 95), and Low (n = 78) profiles, in which athletes reported relatively high, moderate, or low scores across all tripartite perceptions, respectively, as well as an Unfulfilled profile (n = 76) in which athletes held relatively high self-efficacy, but perceived lower levels of other-efficacy and RISE. Multivariate analyses revealed differences between the clusters on all relationship variables that were in line with theory. These results underscore the utility of considering synergistic issues in the examination of the tripartite efficacy framework.     

The effects of REBT on irrational beliefs,self-determined motivation,and self-efficacy in American Football

ABSTRACT

It has been suggested in recent research that rational beliefs as conceptualized within rational-emotive behaviour therapy (REBT) can be operationalized as strategic self-talk, but this has yet to be meaningfully investigated. The current study examines the effects of five one-to-one REBT sessions with three amateur American Football athletes to foster rational self-talk. The purpose of the intervention was to reduce the irrational beliefs, but also in line with recent applied REBT research, to increase the self-determined motivation and self-efficacy of the athletes. Using an idiographic single-case, staggered multiple-baseline across participants design, visual analyses revealed meaningful increases in self-determined motivation and self-efficacy, adjunct to decreases in total irrational beliefs across all participants. Social validation data supported these outcomes. These findings add to the growing research indicating that REBT can influence motivational approaches in athletes, such as self-determined motivation and self-efficacy. Results are discussed in relation to processes underlying the mechanisms of change, while also reporting the limitations of the study. The robustness of the research design increases the extent to which target variable changes can be attributed to REBT, but critical reflections are undertaken to assess the veracity of the findings.     

Relational efficacy beliefs in athlete dyads: an investigation using actor-partner interdependence models

The first purpose of this study was to examine the interrelationships among three forms of relational efficacy within performing dyads, namely, self-efficacy, other-efficacy, and relation-inferred self-efficacy. The second objective was to examine the relationships between these efficacy beliefs and athletes' perceptions of their commitment to and satisfaction with their current partnership. Participants were 120 junior tennis players (age, M = 14.30 years, SD = 1.21) performing within 60 intact pairs (i.e., doubles). Results revealed that self-efficacy and other-efficacy were predictive of athlete commitment and satisfaction, respectively. In addition, by utilizing actor-partner interdependence models, partner as well as actor effects were evident. The findings illustrate that relational efficacy beliefs may not only have implications for the individual holding such beliefs, but also for his or her relational partner. Implications for the future study of efficacy beliefs within dyadic contexts are discussed.     

Self-controlled learning benefits: exploring contributions of self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation via path analysis

Research has shown learning advantages for self-controlled practice contexts relative to yoked (i.e., experimenter-imposed) contexts; yet, explanations for this phenomenon remain relatively untested. We examined, via path analysis, whether self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation are important constructs for explaining self-controlled learning benefits. The path model was created using theory-based and empirically supported relationships to examine causal links between these psychological constructs and physical performance. We hypothesised that self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation would have greater predictive power for learning under self-controlled compared to yoked conditions. Participants learned double-mini trampoline progressions, and measures of physical performance, self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation were collected over two practice days and a delayed retention day. The self-controlled group (M = 2.04, SD = .98) completed significantly more skill progressions in retention than their yoked counterparts (M = 1.3, SD = .65). The path model displayed adequate fit, and similar significant path coefficients were found for both groups wherein each variable was predominantly predicted by its preceding time point (e.g., self-efficacy time 1 predicts self-efficacy time 2). Interestingly, the model was not moderated by group; thus, failing to support the hypothesis that self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation have greater predictive power for learning under self-controlled relative to yoked conditions.     

The impact of individual efficacy beliefs on group goal selection and group goal commitment

Collective efficacy research has begun to progress from simply trying to verify the relationship between collective efficacy and performance to examining the mechanisms through which collective efficacy impacts on performance. To test hypotheses concerning the impact of collective efficacy on group goal selection and commitment, 24 participants were assigned to triads (consisting of the participant and two confederates) and performed two time-trials on cycle ergometers. Before each trial, the participants were asked to select both a finishing time and position goal for their group and to indicate their commitment towards these goals. After trial 1, the participants were assigned to either a high or low collective efficacy condition and received appropriate bogus performance feedback. Analysis of variance and post-hoc tests revealed that participants in the low collective efficacy group significantly reduced both finishing time and group position goals from trial 1 to trial 2, whereas participants in the high collective efficacy group maintained their goals. These results provide support for Bandura's suggestions concerning the mechanisms through which collective efficacy impacts upon performance.     

The impact of individual efficacy beliefs on group goal selection and group goal commitment

Collective efficacy research has begun to progress from simply trying to verify the relationship between collective efficacy and performance to examining the mechanisms through which collective efficacy impacts on performance. To test hypotheses concerning the impact of collective efficacy on group goal selection and commitment, 24 participants were assigned to triads (consisting of the participant and two confederates) and performed two time-trials on cycle ergometers. Before each trial, the participants were asked to select both a finishing time and position goal for their group and to indicate their commitment towards these goals. After trial 1, the participants were assigned to either a high or low collective efficacy condition and received appropriate bogus performance feedback. Analysis of variance and post-hoc tests revealed that participants in the low collective efficacy group significantly reduced both finishing time and group position goals from trial 1 to trial 2, whereas participants in the high collective efficacy group maintained their goals. These results provide support for Bandura's suggestions concerning the mechanisms through which collective efficacy impacts upon performance.     

The impact of collective efficacy beliefs on effort and persistence in a group task

Collective efficacy is an important determinant of the motivation of individuals within groups, with increases in collective efficacy producing more effort in a task and greater persistence when faced with failure. To test hypotheses concerning the impact of collective efficacy on effort and persistence, participants (n = 22) were assigned to triads (consisting of the participant and two confederates) and performed three time trials on cycle ergometers. After trial 1, the participants were assigned to either a high or low collective efficacy condition, receiving appropriate bogus performance feedback. All groups received failure feedback after trial 2. Effort was assessed by performance time and maximum heart rate (HRmax) achieved during performance. A 2 (collective efficacy condition) x 3 (trials) analysis of variance with repeated measures on trials revealed significant interaction effects for both performance time and HRmax. Fisher's least significant difference post-hoc tests indicated that, following efficacy manipulation, groups low in collective efficacy significantly reduced both their performance time and HRmax, whereas groups high in collective efficacy maintained performance and HRmax. However, predictions concerning the impact of failure on persistence were not supported. Our results provide partial support for the role of collective efficacy in team sports.     

自我谈话对精细与粗放类动作技能表现的影响——基于功能类型与显隐性维度

自我谈话对动作表现的影响是体育运动领域中自我谈话研究的主流方向。以往围绕自我谈话与动作表现关系的研究主要考察自我谈话功能类型与动作技能类型之间的匹配关系，较少关注自我谈话表述形式对动作技能表现的影响。因此，本研究在任务匹配假说的基础上，引入自我谈话显隐性（表述形式）这一维度，探讨自我谈话功能类型和表述形式与动作技能类型之间的匹配关系。基于此，本研究设计了2个实验，实验1考察自我谈话功能类型与表述形式对精细类动作技能（飞镖投掷）表现的影响，实验2考察自我谈话功能类型与表述形式对粗放类动作技能（握力）表现的影响。2个实验均为2因素混合设计，实验对象为80名男性本科生。实验结果表明，不发声指导型自我谈话有利于飞镖投掷任务表现，而发声指导型自我谈话有利于握力测试任务表现。本研究表明，指导型自我谈话有利于精细类动作技能表现，尤其是新手；发声自我谈话有利于粗放类动作技能表现，不发声自我谈话有利于精细类动作技能表现。     

“Yes,we can!”: Perceptions of collective efficacy sources in volleyball

Abstract

Collective efficacy can be defined as a group's shared confidence that they will successfully achieve their goal. We examined which behaviours and events are perceived as sources of collective efficacy beliefs in a volleyball context. In Study 1, volleyball coaches from the highest volleyball leagues (n = 33) in Belgium indicated the most important sources of collective efficacy. This list was then adapted based on the literature and on feedback given by an expert focus group, resulting in a 40-item questionnaire. In Study 2, coaches and players from all levels of volleyball in Belgium (n = 2365) rated each of these sources on their predictive value for collective efficacy. A principal component analysis revealed that the 40 sources could be divided into eight internally consistent factors. Positive supportive communication (e.g. enthusiasm after making a point) was identified as the factor most predictive for positive collective efficacy beliefs. The factor referring to the negative emotional reactions of players (e.g. discouraging body language) was the most predictive for negative collective efficacy beliefs. These findings offer a starting point for the design of continuous measurements of collective efficacy through observation.     

The relationship of task self-efficacy and role efficacy beliefs to role performance in Spanish youth soccer

The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between role efficacy and role performance after controlling for the effects of task self-efficacy. Two hundred and ninety-five Spanish youth soccer players from 20 teams completed self-report measures of task self-efficacy, role efficacy and role performance at the mid-point of a competitive season. The 20 team coaches also provided ratings of each of their players' role performances at mid-season. Consistent with hypotheses, bivariate correlations showed task self-efficacy and role efficacy were positively related to role performance ratings. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that role efficacy contributed significantly to the prediction of athletes' ratings of role performance after controlling for task self-efficacy. Role efficacy also explained significant variation in the prediction of coach ratings; however, the effects were less dramatic and inconsistent. Our results support self-efficacy theory and reinforce the value of assessing efficacy beliefs representing behaviours carried out both independently and interdependently for the prediction of role performance within team environments. Future research directions are proposed.     

Exploring self-talk and affective states in sport

In this study, we examined (1) the relationship between self-talk and affect and (2) the nature of motivating self-talk. Ninety high-school athletes completed the Affect Grid and the Self-Talk Grid before practice and competition. Significant positive second-order partial correlations of low to moderate strength offered support for a relationship between self-talk and affect. In addition, significant positive second-order partial correlations of moderate strength were found for a relationship between negative-positive self-talk and demotivating-motivating self-talk. An examination of scatter plots indicated that some athletes rated their self-talk as negative as well as being motivational. These findings lend support to the suggestion that negative self-talk may motivate some athletes.     

Exploring self-talk and affective states in sport.

In this study, we examined (1) the relationship between self-talk and affect and (2) the nature of motivating self-talk. Ninety high-school athletes completed the Affect Grid and the Self-Talk Grid before practice and competition. Significant positive second-order partial correlations of low to moderate strength offered support for a relationship between self-talk and affect. In addition, significant positive second-order partial correlations of moderate strength were found for a relationship between negative-positive self-talk and demotivating-motivating self-talk. An examination of scatter plots indicated that some athletes rated their self-talk as negative as well as being motivational. These findings lend support to the suggestion that negative self-talk may motivate some athletes.     

Quantifying athlete self-talk

Two studies were conducted. The aims of Study 1 were (a) to generate quantitative data on the content of athletes' self-talk and (b) to examine differences in the use of self-talk in general as well as the functions of self-talk in practice and competition settings. Differences in self-talk between the sexes, sport types and skill levels were also assessed. Athletes (n = 295, mean age = 21.9 years) from a variety of sports and competitive levels completed the Self-Talk Use Questionnaire (STUQ), which was developed specifically for the study. In Study 1, single-factor between-group multivariate analyses of variance revealed significant differences across sex and sport type for the content of self-talk. Mixed-model multivariate analyses of variance revealed overall greater use of self-talk, as well as increased use of the functions of self-talk, in competition compared with practice. Moreover, individual sport athletes reported greater use of self-talk, as well as the functions of self-talk, than their team sport counterparts. In Study 2, recreational volleyball players (n = 164, mean age = 21.5 years) completed a situationally modified STUQ. The results were very similar to those of Study 1. That the content of athlete self-talk was generally positive, covert and abbreviated lends support to the application of Vygotsky's (1986) verbal self-regulation theory to the study of self-talk in sport. Researchers are encouraged to examine the effectiveness of self-talk in future studies.     

Physical Fitness and Cardiac Risk Factors of Professional Firefighters across the Career Span

This study examined the relationship between basic psychological skills usage (i.e., goal-setting, imagery, self-talk, and relaxation) and the intensity and directional dimensions of competitive anxiety. Semistructured interviews were used on a sample of 15 elite athletes (M age = 24.3 years, SD = 4.2) from a variety of team and individual sports. Findings revealed that the participants maintained the intensity of their anxiety response prior to competition and could deploy goal-setting, imagery, or self-talk to enable facilitative interpretations of anxiety-related symptoms to performance. Higher levels of self-confidence and an optimistic outlook toward forthcoming competition were also expressed. The underlying mechanisms perceived to be responsible for these effects included effort and motivation, attentional focus, and perceived control over the anxiety response.     

Quantifying athlete self-talk

Two studies were conducted. The aims of Study 1 were (a) to generate quantitative data on the content of athletes' self-talk and (b) to examine differences in the use of self-talk in general as well as the functions of self-talk in practice and competition settings. Differences in self-talk between the sexes, sport types and skill levels were also assessed. Athletes (n = 295, mean age = 21.9 years) from a variety of sports and competitive levels completed the Self-Talk Use Questionnaire (STUQ), which was developed specifically for the study. In Study 1, single-factor between-group multivariate analyses of variance revealed significant differences across sex and sport type for the content of self-talk. Mixed-model multivariate analyses of variance revealed overall greater use of self-talk, as well as increased use of the functions of self-talk, in competition compared with practice. Moreover, individual sport athletes reported greater use of self-talk, as well as the functions of self-talk, than their team sport counterparts. In Study 2, recreational volleyball players (n = 164, mean age = 21.5 years) completed a situationally modified STUQ. The results were very similar to those of Study 1. That the content of athlete self-talk was generally positive, covert and abbreviated lends support to the application of Vygotsky's () verbal self-regulation theory to the study of self-talk in sport. Researchers are encouraged to examine the effectiveness of self-talk in future studies.     

To me,to you: How you say things matters for endurance performance

ABSTRACT

Self-talk enhances physical performance. Nothing is known however about the way that a subtle grammatical difference in self-talk, using first or second person pronouns, may effect performance. As second person self-talk supports self-regulation in non-exercise populations, we hypothesized that 10 km cycling time-trial performance would be superior following second versus first person self-talk. Using a randomized, counterbalanced, crossover design, sixteen physically active males (M_age = 21.99, SD = 3.04 years) completed a familiarization visit followed by a 10 km time-trial during two separate experimental visits using first and second person self-talk. A paired t-test revealed that second person self-talk generated significantly faster time-trial performance than first person self-talk (p = .014). This was reflected in a significantly greater power output throughout the time-trial when using second person self-talk (p = .03), despite RPE remaining similar between conditions (p = .75). This is the first evidence that strategically using grammatical pronouns when implementing self-talk can influence physical performance providing practitioners with a new aspect to consider when developing interventions. We discussed findings in the context of a self-distancing phenomenon induced by the use second person pronouns.