Pedagogical content knowledge as reflected in teacher–student interactions: Analysis of two video cases

Despite the theorized centrality of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) for teaching, we have little evidence of the relationship between PCK and students' learning and know relatively little about how to help teachers to develop PCK. This study is a preliminary attempt to address these gaps in our knowledge of PCK through exploration of two German physics teachers' classroom instruction in consecutive lessons on optics. We show how video analysis can be used to gather evidence for one aspect of teachers' PCK: their use of content knowledge in interactions with students. We identify three potentially important characteristics of this aspect of PCK: flexibility, richness, and learner‐centeredness. By contrasting teachers with high and low gains in student knowledge and interest, we explore potential mechanisms by which this aspect of PCK might affect student outcomes. Because German teacher preparation programs emphasize content more than pedagogical knowledge, these cases contribute to our understanding of the support that teachers with strong content knowledge may need in translating this knowledge into a form useful for teaching.Fachdidaktisches Wissen ist aus theoretischer Sicht besonders zentral für das Unterrichten. Aus empirischer Sicht gibt es bislang allerdings noch wenig Evidenz für den Einsatz fachdidaktischen Wissens während des Unterrichtens und seine Bedeutung für das Lernen von Schülerinnen und Schülern. Außerdem wissen wir wenig darüber, wie Lehrpersonen über die Zeit fachdidaktisches Wissen entwickeln. Diese Studie ist ein Versuch, diese Wissenslücken zum fachdidaktischen Wissen von Lehrpersonen zu bearbeiten. Dabei wird exemplarisch der Unterricht von zwei deutschen Physiklehrern in aufeinanderfolgenden Stunden zum Thema Optik untersucht. Die Studie zeigt wie Videoanalysen genutzt werden können, um Belege für einen Aspekt des fachdidaktischen Wissens der Lehrpersonen zu sammeln: Ihre Nutzung von inhaltlichem Wissen in der Interaktion mit den Schülerinnen und Schülern. In dieser Studie werden drei potentiell wichtige Charakteristika dieses Aspekts des fachdidaktischen Wissens identifiziert: Flexibilität, Reichhaltigkeit und Schülerorientierung. Durch die Gegenüberstellung von Lehrpersonen mit hohem und niedrigem Wissens‐ und Interessenzuwachs wurden potentielle Mechanismen untersucht, durch die dieser Aspekt des fachdidaktischen Wissens die Lernergebnisse von Schülerinnen und Schülern beeinflussen kann. Die Lehrerausbildung in Deutschland betont das inhaltliche Wissen stärker als das fachdidaktische Wissen. Die ausgewählten Fälle beschreiben, welche Unterstützung Lehrpersonen mit einem hohen fachlichen Wissen benötigen, um dieses Wissen so zu verändern, dass es für das Unterrichten genutzt werden kann. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 49: 1211–1239, 2012     

The protective role of teacher–student relationships against peer victimization and psychosocial distress

This study examined whether teacher–student relationships protect against peer victimization and its negative psychosocial effects (i.e., depression, anxiety, and stress). Additionally, the influence of teacher–student relationships, peer relationships, and students’ perceptions of school order and discipline was investigated as these variables were expected to be negatively related to the former. Data were collected from high school‐aged adolescents (N = 539; 51% female) in the U.S. Southwest. Study results indicate that teacher–student relationships buffered against experiencing psychosocial distress associated with peer victimization. Although positive teacher–student relationships, peer relationships, and students’ perceptions of school order and discipline all were negatively associated with peer victimization and psychosocial distress, teacher–student relationships were robustly related to peer victimization and psychosocial distress over the influence of the previous variables. In other words, as a key study finding, teacher–student relationships may reduce the impact of peer victimization by mitigating its negative psychosocial effects in a robust yet relatively unexplored way. Therefore, although more research is needed, fostering positive teacher–student relationships might be an effective way to reduce peer victimization as well as its negative effects.     

Identified phases in the building and maintaining of positive teacher–student relationships

Teacher–student relationships are accepted as influential but the dynamics of those relationships are not well understood, especially with difficult students. A series of interviews were combined with classroom observations and written reflections to understand in what ways a teacher negotiated her relationship with a behaviorally challenging student throughout the school year. Four relationship phases, which are constantly revisited while establishing and maintaining relationships, were identified. Findings indicate that guided reflection and discussion were helpful in the negotiation process. Understandings of how relationships work, the effort required to maintain them and the support necessary for teachers are discussed.     

An examination of teacher–student interactions in inclusive classrooms: teacher interviews and classroom observations

Teacher–student interactions in 17 inclusive classrooms were examined using a mixed‐methods approach that involved quantitative analysis of interactions recorded during classroom observations and follow‐up interviews with seven general educators. Observational findings suggest that classrooms were organised along traditional lines with the vast majority of interactions provided by general educators to the whole class, followed by brief intervals of 1 : 1 interactions directed towards individual students, most frequently children with disabilities. Interview findings suggest that teachers were aware of the greater individual attention devoted to students with disabilities and described a number of ways that they adapt their instruction that are consistent with the research on effective teaching. In addition, participants struggled with the dilemma of balancing their attention between students whom they perceived as needing it most and ensuring that the class as a whole made adequate progress. The analysis of both observational and interview data indicates that paraprofessionals were responsible for a large portion of instruction and curricular decision making for children with severe disabilities in these classrooms.     

The impact of teacher–student relationships and classroom engagement on student growth percentiles of 7th and 8th grade students

The study examined the extent that teacher–student relationships (TSR) influenced basic psychological needs, engagement, and student growth using the self‐systems process model as a framework using structural equation modeling. Based on prior research, it was hypothesized that context (TSR) influenced self (basic psychological needs), which influenced action (engagement), and consequently, influenced outcome (student score and grade point average‐GPA). The findings of the study supported prior research that a TSR positively influenced levels of engagement in the classroom and, consequently, student outcomes as measured by classroom grade point average (GPA) and standardized assessment results. Using an identical methodological setup that substituted student growth percentiles (SGP) for scale scores, it was determined that TSR, basic psychological need satisfaction, and level of engagement do not influence SGP. Implications and potential contributions are discussed.     

The cultural and emotional politics of teacher–parent interactions

This article seeks to explore the ways in which the culture and organization of teaching influences the experiences and emotions teachers report in their interactions with parents. Hargreaves’ framework, based on the emotional politics of teaching, is used here to analyze fifty-three primary and secondary teachers’ interview responses in which they described interactions with parents that elicited negative and positive emotions. Parent–teacher interactions are explored as emotional practices that are inseparable from teachers’ moral purposes, shaped by influences of culture and relationship, and inextricably interconnected elements of status and power. Data suggest that the culture and organization of teaching influence the values, discourses and senses of purpose teachers hold and thus the experiences and emotions they report in their interactions with parents. The article closes with suggestions for further research and policy considerations.     

The effects on students' emotional and behavioural difficulties of teacher–student interactions,students' social skills and classroom context

Children's emotional and behavioural difficulties are the result of multiple individual, social and contextual factors working in concert. The current paper proposes a theoretical framework for interpreting students' emotional and behavioural difficulties in classrooms, by taking into consideration teacher–student interactions, students' social skills and classroom context. Based on Bronfenbrenner's model, according to which process, person and context are the main sources of children's development, the current paper combines three theoretical approaches: firstly, in terms of process, the systems communication approach, which refers to teacher–student interactions; secondly, in terms of person, social and emotional learning, which refers to children's social skills; and thirdly, in terms of classroom context, the achievement goal theory, with its emphasis on the mastery of classroom goal structure. Empirical support for the framework resulted in the administration of four instruments to 962 primary students: (a) QTI for teacher–student interactions, (b) MESSY for students' social skills; (c) CGS for classroom context; and (d) SDQ for students' emotional and behavioural difficulties. It was found that students' possession of social skills had a prominent role in the prediction of emotional and behavioural difficulties, while teacher–student interactions and classroom context also affected students' emotional and behavioural difficulties. This perspective provides educators with a theoretical and practical tool for understanding emotional and behavioural difficulties.     

Motivations,barriers, & understandings: how students at four universities perceive student–faculty partnership programs

ABSTRACT

Extracurricular student–staff partnership activities are increasingly common in higher education institutions, but concerns have been expressed about their relative inclusivity. In order to contribute to understanding of why students do and do not take part in such initiatives, this study draws on data from a survey of students at four institutions, in three different countries, with established extracurricular partnership programs. Though the findings indicate some preliminary differences between participants at the four institutions, they also demonstrate a number of shared perceptions, including similar understandings of key features of partnership and shared perceptions of barriers to participation. Implications for partnership practice and research are discussed.     

The role of parents in special education: the notion of partnership revised

ABSTRACT

While parents' role in schools has attracted growing attention in educational research, very few researchers have directed any interest to the role of parents in special education. In this paper, we focus upon the concept of partnership, relating our analyses of interviews with classroom teachers and parents to the notion of partnership as described and explored by different researchers. Our main focus is on how teachers describe and perceive their relation to parents, and how parents experience their relation to the school. Our analysis shows that the relationship between teachers and parents seems to contain some other features than those reflected in the existing literature on parents’ role in education. To extract some of these features based on our data, we construct two roles: parents as ‘implementers’ and parents as ‘clients’, which we believe better captures the distinctive feature of the role of parents in special education. ‘Implementer’ implies parents being given responsibility for following up aims and measures set by the school, with very little possibility to influence how things are being done. ‘Clients’ occur when teachers see parents as part of their child's problem. Both roles place parents in a subordinate and powerless relationship with the school, as a result of a strong inequality of power between parents and schools. This inequality is caused, among other factors, by the socially defined power relationship between laypersons and professionals, and the stigma attached to special education which restrains parents from forming any collective resistance.     

The effects of changes in class size on teacher–pupil interaction

This chapter examines the changes in teacher–pupil interaction which occurred when teachers from the state maintained sector, with classes containing around thirty children, were provided with the opportunity to teach classes of approximately half that size. This was achieved either by “buddying” each of these teachers with a partner from a private school or by employing an extra teacher to take half of the large class. The results of the observation of these lessons showed increases in the types of interaction which previous research has shown to be positively correlated with increased pupil achievement. These increases, however, were not statistically significant. The chapter, therefore, concludes that before future experimental studies are carried out, there is a need for training designed to maximize the use of these key teacher–pupil interactions in small class settings.     

Child level correlates of teacher–student relationships: An examination of demographic characteristics,academic orientations,and behavioral orientations

The purpose of this investigation was to examine associations between different child characteristics and conflict, closeness, and dependency within teacher–student relationships. The participants were primarily students of color from lower socioeconomic status backgrounds in a large urban school district. The strength of associations between student demographic variables, academic orientations, behavioral orientations, and aspects of teacher–student relationships was examined. Findings indicated that these variables accounted for a significant amount of variance in teacher ratings of conflict and dependency in teacher–student relationships. Externalizing and internalizing symptomology demonstrated the strongest associations with the conflict and dependency relationship constructs. Preliminary implications of these findings for teachers and school psychologists are explored. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Psychol Schs 41: 751–762, 2004.     

Does one size fit all? The induction experience of beginning science teachers from different teacher‐preparation programs

The number of induction programs available to teachers is increasing rapidly, and by necessity these programs are designed to meet the needs of all teachers regardless of their preparation and academic background. This study examines the impact of a science‐focused induction program on secondary science teachers from different preparation programs. The 16 teachers were first‐year secondary science teachers who graduated the previous year from one of four different teacher‐preparation programs. All teachers were monitored during their first year of teaching, as they participated in the induction program, to understand their teaching beliefs, instructional practices, and experiences in the classroom. The analysis of data revealed that the preservice training of a science teacher influenced the type of support the teacher derived from the science‐focused induction program. Teachers from a preservice program with an extended student‐teaching experience and two science methods courses held beliefs aligned with student‐centered practices and implemented more reform‐based lessons than did other teachers during the year. This study reinforces the importance of induction programs for teachers and suggests that there is a need for specialized support programs for beginning science teachers. The study also provides specific suggestions for improving the preparation of secondary science teachers. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 43: 963–985, 2006     

An analysis of international partnership programs: The case of an historically disadvantaged institution in South Africa

International academic partnerships have the potential to enhance the participating institution’s efforts to become actors in the global educational arena. The ability of partnerships to realize their objectives is affected by the relationship that the partner members have with one another and the mutual benefit each receives from the agreement. This article examines the dynamics of an academic partnership between Transformed University an historically disadvantaged institution in the Eastern Cape Province in South Africa and three international partners from the US, Canada, and the European Economic Community. The paper illuminates a variety of factors including history, organizational culture, and globalization forces that affect the success of academic partnerships to reach their stated objectives.     

Understanding complex ecologies: an investigation of student experiences in adventure learning programs

The GoNorth! Adventure Learning (AL) Series delivered educational programs about global climate change and sustainability from 2006 to 2010 via a hybrid-learning environment that included a curriculum designed with activities that worked in conjunction with the travels of Team GoNorth! as they dog sledded throughout the circumpolar Arctic. This study addresses a gap in the AL literature by identifying factors that lead to high levels of student engagement and reveals strategies for instructional designers and educators on how to design emotionally engaging online learning environments. A mixed methods study was conducted to explore patterns of learner engagement in relation to two AL programs: GoNorth! Fennoscandia 2008 and GoNorth! Nunavut 2009. Survey data were drawn from a total of 101 students in 2008 and 2009.     

Understanding factors associated with teacher‐directed student use of technology in elementary classrooms: A structural equation modeling approach

Analyses presented here are secondary data analyses of the Use, Support and Effect of Instructional Technology study aimed at identifying predictors of teacher‐directed student use of technology (TDS) in elementary classrooms. Using data from a convenience sample of 1040 teachers nested within 81 schools in 21 Massachusetts' school districts, researchers developed a teacher‐level structural equation modeling for TDS depicting relationships between and among factors associated with TDS. Researchers relied on diffusion and adoption theories as well as prior empirical evidence to specify the hypothetical model. Evidence presented here suggests that the strongest predictors of TDS are as follows: (1) teachers' experience with technology, (2) belief that technology is beneficial to meet instructional goals, (3) perceived importance of technology for teaching and that (4) experiencing obstacles with the integration of technology appears to be one deterrent to teachers using technology in the classroom. The most important finding reported here is that two of the most important factors in increasing TDS are teachers' beliefs about the benefits of technology and perceived importance of technology for teaching.     

The college student grant study: The effectiveness of student grant and scholarship programs in promoting equal educational opportunity

During the last few years there has been an increased emphasis on the use of student scholarships and grants to promote postsecondary access and choice. This study of scholarship and grant programs in California, New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania examines the extent to which this goal is being achieved. Highlights of the findings are that these state aid programs (1) induce a substantial number of students from low-income families to attend college, although they fail to have much impact on the very lowest income students; (2) are particularly helpful to women; and (3) overall, are responsible for the postsecondary attendance of nearly one half of the aid recipients.     

Teaching skills of student teachers: Calibration of an evaluation instrument and its value in predicting student academic engagement

Student teachers are expected to develop their teaching skills sooner and more rapidly. However, a sound evaluation instrument that can be used to diagnose and monitor the skilfulness level to aid formative assessment of student teachers is still limited. This article is aimed to calibrate and validate a teaching skill evaluation instrument for use in secondary education. A total of 264 student teachers in the Netherlands participated in the study. Rasch and multilevel analyses were used. Results suggest that the evaluation instrument meets the restrictive assumptions of the Rasch model and has predictive value for academic engagement. This adds validation evidence and justifies the calibration of the evaluation instrument to be used for monitoring the development of teacher's teaching skills.