Shadow education: patterns and scale of private supplementary tutoring in English in secondary education at urban Dhaka in Bangladesh

Private supplementary tutoring with an additional fee is generally called shadow education, and this has become a common phenomenon in urban Dhaka, where patterns and scale of tutoring in English have been remarkable in recent years. This study used a mixed-methods approach that included quantitative and qualitative data collected from a survey and individual interview. Tutoring in English has been a regular feature of the teaching profession in this urban area. The paper examines various patterns of private tutoring in English and focuses on the amount of tutoring, including the tutoring received and not received by students in urban Dhaka. It shows the variations of scale regarding tutoring in English between male and female students. The study also identifies different types of private tutors who deliver supplementary tutoring. Finally, the choices pupils make regarding their evaluation on the effectiveness of shapes of tutoring in English are discussed.     

Private Subtractory Tutoring: The Negative Impact of Shadow Education on Public Schooling in Myanmar

An expanding literature focuses on the so-called shadow education system of private supplementary tutoring, and contributes to understandings of the nexus between in-school and out-of-school learning. This paper, contextualised in broader literature, draws on questionnaire and interview data from students, teachers, principals, parents and other stakeholders in Myanmar, and observes that shadow education may subtract as well as supplement. For some decades, public education in Myanmar has suffered from financial stringency, large classes, and overloaded curriculum. Students and their families have sought private tutoring, particularly from public school teachers, to supplement school education; and teachers and other providers have welcomed the revenue that they can earn. As a result, private tutoring has become embedded in the lives of many students and teachers, and has consumed time and energy supposed to be spent on school education. However, the private tutoring has also helped to keep the school system running.     

Micro-neoliberalism in China: public-private interactions at the confluence of mainstream and shadow education

With its shift to a market economy gathering speed from the 1990s, the Chinese Government embarked on an agenda that brought neoliberal forces into almost all sectors including education. The policies underpinned China’s spectacular economic growth, but in education have had consequences that arguably are problematic.

Drawing on a mixed-methods study in Shanghai, this paper examines ‘micro-neoliberalism’ in China’s education system, i.e. privatization and marketization at the individual, family, and institutional levels, with focus on blurring boundaries between public schooling and private supplementary tutoring. Some dimensions of these processes resulted from deliberate macro-level policies to decentralize control of schooling, raise performance, and empower private education. Other dimensions arose from the market behavior of individuals, families, and institutions that countered government efforts to steer parental choice of schools and to reduce disparities between schools. Education policies are enacted not only in schools but also in the shadow sector which is commonly overlooked. This paper focuses on Shanghai but has implications for other parts of China; and since shadow education is expanding as a global phenomenon, it also has relevance to many other countries.     

"影子教育":国外关于课外补习的研究与启示

课外补习在一些国家已存在很长时间,俨然成为主流学校教育的"影子".近20年来国外已经对课外补习做了大量的实证研究.课外补习的分布、规模、科目、强度、影响因素与政府政策等方面都具有鲜明的特点,它对教育、经济和社会都产生了广泛的影响.这对我国的教育政策制定和教育研究具有一定的借鉴意义.     

Moral imagination in education: A Deweyan proposal for teachers responding to hate speech

This article is about moments when teachers experience hate speech in education and need to act. Based on John Dewey’s work on moral philosophy and examples from teaching practice, I would like to contribute to the discussion about moral education by emphasizing the following: (1) the importance of experience, (2) the problem with prescribed morals and (3) the need for moral imagination in education. My Deweyan proposal for teachers responding to hate speech in education is to use moral imagination in education and take contextual elements into consideration when deciding how to act. Doing this would facilitate work related to doing morals and help to prevent prescribing morals as something that has already been done and that teachers (and students) have to adjust to in schools without being part of the process.     

Educational Visions from Two Continents: What Tagore adds to the Deweyan perspective

In this global village, it is relevant to look at two educational visionaries from two continents, John Dewey and Rabindranath Tagore. Dewey observed that the modern individual was depersonalized by the industrial and commercial culture. He, thus, envisioned a new individual who would find fulfillment in maximum individuality within maximum community, which was embodied in his democratic concept and educational philosophy. Tagore's educational vision was based on India's traditional philosophy of harmony and fullness. It focused on self‐realization within the context of international education. This article compares the educational visions of Dewey and Tagore and demonstrates that Tagore's international educational perspective adds to Dewey's concepts of social individual and democracy and that their perspectives have implications for contemporary education.     

北京市中小学学生数学补习的影响因素分析

补习教育带给家庭和社会一种及其矛盾的情感,它本身不仅是具有深远的经济意义的产业,而且会对社会产生复杂的影响.为了向公众描绘一个更加清晰和全面的关于补习教育的图景,选取北京8所普通小学和5所普通中学的2 089名被试,以学校、家庭、个人为背景变量分别探讨影响数学补习次数和态度的因素.结果表明:(1)中等水平学校学生数学补习行为最积极.(2)母亲受教育水平较高,子女参加数学补习行为较积极.(3)小学生参加数学补习时间较多,态度较积极;中等数学水平学生补习态度最积极.(4) Logistic回归分析显示,学校水平、母亲受教育水平和年级对中小学生数学补习时间的累积贡献率为8.5％.分层线性回归分析显示,年级对中小学生数学补习态度的贡献率为4％.     

The curriculum of climate change education: A case for Singapore

The inclusion of the climate change topic in the curriculum of school subjects in Singapore was pivotal, such that it positioned the discourse squarely in the structure of Singapore's education system. In an examination of the intersections and disjoints between state policies on climate change against the programmatic curriculum, results showed that there is no strong policy curriculum that mandates how climate change should be learned in Singapore, even though it is present in several school subjects. The topic is included in school subjects through the initiative of subject disciplinary specialists and middle managers of the education ministry. This exemplar has implications on how climate change education policy and practice can be shaped elsewhere.     

School factors underlying demand for private supplementary tutoring in English: urban and rural variations in Bangladesh

Private supplementary tutoring has long existed in Bangladesh, as elsewhere in the world, but in recent decades has become much more visible. Much tutoring “shadows” or reproduces formal schooling as fee-based academic teaching outside school hours. This paper focuses on school factors that shape demand for private supplementary tutoring in English at the secondary level, drawing on data gained from both quantitative and qualitative methods. The paper is especially concerned with urban and rural variations, noting that rates of tutoring are greater in urban areas but that many factors converge to create similarities. Private tutoring in English is highly demanded because English is a compulsory course; and in addition to being a subject in its own right, it assists in the learning of other subjects. While private tutoring may support the academic learning of some pupils, it also has problematic dimensions. As such, the spread of tutoring across urban and rural areas is not necessarily to be welcomed.     

新加坡职教特色引发的思考

新加坡职业教育的特色体现在以人为本,政府支持,实施＂教学工厂＂培养模式。借鉴其成功经验,我国职业教育需加强政府的宏观调控作用,明确高职办学定位,试行模块式课程模式,大力培养双师型教师。     

Considering equity in basic education reform in Japan from the perspective of private costs of education

It is widely acknowledged that the private costs of education occupy a substantial part of the overall education cost and thus they have implications for quality and equity in education. The case of Japan demonstrates that access to basic education at junior high school level is unequal and inequitable when considering private costs of education borne within and outside the school system. It was also found that household spending on supplementary education in public schools is likely to be determined by local implementation of education reforms. Current education reform with its absence of financial and technical support to schools under the guise of deregulation does not seem to generate good levels of choice nor does it seem to sustain quality and equity in education.     

Private tutoring lessons supply: insights from online advertising in the Czech Republic

In many parts of the world, shadow education has become a major enterprise. Such is the case of the countries of the former Eastern Bloc, including the Czech Republic, which is in scope of this article. The study analyses the Internet supply of private tutoring lessons in academic subjects and assesses the micro- and macro-factors influencing the offered lesson price as set by private tutors. Based on the quantitative content analysis of 2058 individual tutor profiles advertising online, the author found a very unequal distribution of tutors within the country and a considerable proportion of mainstream schoolteachers acting as private lesson providers. The higher the formal education and age of the tutor, the higher the price they offer per lesson. Male tutors set higher prices than female tutors, and tutoring in foreign languages is generally more expensive than in any other subject. The results suggest that the features of private tutoring supply have implications for equity in education.     

新加坡高等教育大众化评析

:8 0年代中期以前 ,新加坡政府一直推行英才教育政策。但是 ,80年代中后期以来 ,新加坡政府的教育观念和政策发生了很大的变化 ,其中最突出的就是扩大高等学校的招生规模 ,以便让更多的人能接受教育。这一观念和政策的转变使新加坡高等教育步入了一个快速发展的时期。本文对导致这一变化的社会经济背景 ,发展变化过程中的主要改革措施及存在的问题进行了分析和介绍     

新加坡私立高等教育的特征与启示

新加坡私立高等教育与中国民办高等教育同起步于20世纪80年代,同样在经历了盲目扩张、缺乏规范的发展阶段后走向规范化、高质化。新加坡私立高等教育的认证化管理、国际化办学、职业化与应用化的核心课程理念以及其营利性的本质属性促成了其良性发展,其政府对人才培养的重视及高效的政府管理水平保障了新加坡私立高等教育的特色发展,国家经济发展的需求为其提供了不竭的动力,全球教育产业的兴起也是其发展的契机。新加坡私立高等教育发展对中国民办高等教育的启示有:基于组织混合性的私立高等教育管理方式;卓有成效的国际化深层建构;以教育信托认证制度为核心的质量保障体系;动态应用型课程的开发。     

Differentiated demand for private supplementary tutoring: Patterns and implications in Hong Kong secondary education

A growing number of students around the world receive private tutoring in academic subjects. Such tutoring is widely called shadow education because it mimics regular schooling as the school sector grows, so does the shadow; and as the curriculum in the school changes, so does the curriculum in the shadow. Private tutoring has long been a significant phenomenon in East Asia, but has not received adequate research attention.This paper focuses on private tutoring in Hong Kong. It draws on data collected through questionnaires from students in Grades 9 and 12, and analyzes the factors which shape the demand for private tutoring. The paper highlights the influence of school, family and individual factors on students’ demand, and reports on students’ declared reasons for taking private tutoring. It commences with a broad comparative picture, and concludes by showing what the Hong Kong data add to wider conceptual understanding.     

Towards a transnational model of critical values education: the case for literature education in Singapore

Once regarded as the most essential subject in the national curriculum vital for civilizing the public, English Literature has now lost its place of prominence. In this paper, I focus on Singapore where the subject was a core aspect of the colonial curriculum and where it is currently facing declining enrolment at the national examinations. In the first part of the paper, I discuss how Literature initially functioned to propagate colonial values education in Singapore and how, following Singapore's independence, its goals were overtaken by a nation-state model of values education. Limitations of this model provide the grounds for a transnational model of critical values education that, as I argue in the second part, may be powerfully conveyed through Literature. It is Literature's capacity to facilitate transnational critical engagements with values and explorations of identity especially involving highly sensitive aspects related to gender, race, and religion that represents the strongest justification in the light of its present demise. What Literature offers is the possibility of engaging with values beyond the confines of Empire or nation by grappling with essential questions about what it means to be a cosmopolitan as opposed to a nationalistic citizen inhabiting the world.     

Equalising schooling,unequalising private supplementary tutoring: access and tracking through shadow education in China

The global expansion of mass schooling has greatly increased opportunities for low-income families, and governments have devoted much effort to equalising access and quality in education systems. Alongside regular schooling, the so-called shadow education system of private supplementary tutoring has grown rapidly across the world. The fact that rich families can purchase more and better quality shadow education undermines the achievements of increased equality of opportunities in formal schooling. Drawing on a mixed-methods study in Shanghai, China, the article shows how shadow education has offset school equalisation policies through differentiation of access and through sorting mechanisms. Shadow education occupies a space beyond strict government control in which privileged families and elite schools ignore and mediate the equalisation policies, seeking competitive advantages. Uneven access to shadow education and tracking within it shape, maintain, and exacerbate inequitable schooling experiences at individual and institutional levels.     

The purposes outdoor education does,could and should serve in Singapore

This paper discusses the purposes that outdoor education does, could and should serve in Singapore. Gert Biesta’s conceptualisation of three functions of education is adapted to frame deliberations on the purposes of outdoor education in Singapore’s socio-political and educational milieu. The author suggests that outdoor education in Singapore could and should give high priority to serving three educational purposes; namely, building resilience, building emotional bonds with the place that constitutes Singapore, and building ecological literacy. In pursuing such purposes, outdoor education in Singapore might lessen the gap between the educational outcomes it currently produces and those it could achieve in the future.     

城市义务教育阶段学生校外补习教育状况的调查与思考

采用随机抽样的方法对兰州市N区的2所补习学校的4—9年级的48名同学进行了调查,并对问卷和访谈资料进行了数据统计分析。结果表明：学生接受补习的主要原因是提高成绩;学生对补习教育的需求广泛存在;补习教育影响了学生正常的学习和生活;补习教育的广泛存在加剧了教育的不公平。