School psychologists and autism identification: Present challenges and potential solutions

Although federal law has provided guidelines for autism eligibility for special education, school-based autism assessment and eligibility vary widely across states and identification continues to lag behind national prevalence data. The main role of the school psychologist continues to be conducting evaluations for special education eligibility, and given current barriers, some school psychologists do not feel equipped to make a recommendation for autism eligibility. This article summarizes the barriers school psychologists face when conducting autism assessments in the schools, including systemic barriers, lack of training or professional development, resulting lack of confidence, among others. We conclude by highlighting recommendations for multipronged systemic changes that will improve the capacity of special education teams and specifically support the pivotal role of the school psychologist in conducting autism eligibility evaluations in the schools.     

From eligibility assessment to intervention for students with autism spectrum disorder

The mean age of identification for autism spectrum disorder (ASD) occurs during the months before children enter kindergarten. The incidence and prevalence of “autistic behaviors” in the general population are not fully understood, however, census-matched studies of these behaviors have yielded important new data. As children presenting with behaviors characteristic of ASD enter school, school psychologists are increasingly faced with the assessment and determination of individuals with disabilities improvement act (IDEIA) eligibility, often with students yet to be formally diagnosed with ASD. In many US states, a clinical diagnosis of ASD is not required for a child's eligibility to be served under the category of other health impaired as autism. Nor does a diagnosis of ASD automatically qualify a student as eligible under IDEIA. Eligibility hinges on educational impact. This article briefly reviews the current state of knowledge as it relates to understanding and evaluating children with suspected ASD in the schools, offers a framework for assessment, and discusses a set of proposed guidelines to assist in effectively utilizing assessment data in the development of individualized education plan goals.     

‘Why single me out?’ Peer mentoring,autism and inclusion in mainstream secondary schools

The past decade has seen an increase in the number of students with autism attending mainstream educational provision. Improving outcomes for this group is a complex issue given the deficit of evidence‐based practice. A new peer mentoring programme developed for students with autism in mainstream secondary schools was evaluated using a combination of quantitative and qualitative measures. Twelve students with autism and 36 students without autism participated in the programme across five schools in the south‐east of England. Students with autism were assessed using the Harter Self‐Esteem Questionnaire, Loneliness and Social Dissatisfaction Scale and the Anti‐Bullying Alliance survey. Semi‐structured interviews were conducted to record their views and experiences of the programme. Significant gains in self‐esteem, social satisfaction and a reduction in bullying were seen over the course of the programme. These findings have wider implications for the ways in which educational approaches, strategies and interventions are developed and delivered in schools.     

A review of research into stakeholder perspectives on inclusion of students with autism in mainstream schools

Increasing numbers of students with autism are being educated in mainstream schools. However, outcomes for students with autism are poor when compared to typical students and students with other developmental disabilities. In order to better understand facilitators and barriers to success at school for students with autism, research into the attitudes of key stakeholders, educators, parents, people with autism, to inclusion in mainstream schools for students with autism, was reviewed. Key themes emerging included attitudes to inclusion, the characteristics of autism and social communication in particular and interaction with the school environment, and consequent student problem behaviour. Level of knowledge and understanding of school staff emerged as the primary issue with all stakeholders identifying the need for more training. Other support needs identified included the need for structural support, resources and funding. Parents, in particular, identified the need for a collaborative approach to the education process. The findings highlight the need to translate theory into practice to increase capacity in schools to provide effective educational programmes for students with autism.     

The assessment needs of families with children who are deaf and hard of hearing referred for an autism spectrum disorder evaluation

With the increasing prevalence of autism spectrum disorder (ASD), clinicians and schools are receiving a larger number of assessment referrals for eligibility or diagnostic clarification of ASD in children who are deaf and hard of hearing (D/HH). Meeting this increasing demand is often difficult given not all assessment professionals seek specialized ASD training and even fewer have experience working with D/HH children. Therefore, families are disadvantaged because of the lack of assessment professionals who specialize in both these areas. School psychologists without such experience are at-risk for misinterpreting or missing key diagnostic information. This study explored the assessment experiences of four families of D/HH children who have ASD. Hearing parents’ and D/HH parents’ perspectives were gathered to explore the family needs. An open-ended survey asked parents to recall the assessment techniques utilized during the process and relate how their child's language skills were accounted for by the clinician. Parent responses revealed interpreters were utilized for various reasons unique to each family. Families expressed difficulty finding ASD specialists who had experience working with D/HH children. This study highlights the importance of selecting a trained interpreter and emphasizes the need of more professionals who have experience assessing ASD in D/HH children.     

Supporting practitioners in school-based evaluations of autism spectrum disorders

Students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) have vastly different educational needs. Although some students with ASD may perform well across subjects within the general education classroom, other students with ASD may need more individualized support outside of the classroom. Historically, ASD assessments in schools have primarily focused on the measurement of cornerstone behaviors of ASD such as deficits in social communication and restricted or repetitive behaviors while underestimating the focus of academic skills even though both factors are required in the evaluation process and for an eligibility classification. The purpose of this article is to provide an overview of academic assessment practices in the schools by highlighting best practices in ASD evaluation, outlining ASD academic profiles and how to identify academic skill deficits, and reviewing the available literature that comes from different formal- and function-based assessment practices that are commonly used in schools today. The authors also discuss how formal- and function-based assessments both serve a purpose and are recommended to be used in conjunction with one another to best demonstrate a student's academic profile. Practitioners are ultimately encouraged to use a multi-informant, multi-modal approach when it comes to psychoeducational evaluations for individuals with ASD as it is evident that an individualized approach is essential due to the discrepancy of academic profiles related to this disability category as well as understanding that no measure is a perfect representation of any one skill.     

Marginalisation,autism and school exclusion: caregivers' perspectives

The article presents findings from interviews with five caregivers of children with autism excluded from schools in England. Objectives : to determine the barriers and enablers to mainstream schooling for children with autism and to explore the emotional effect of the journey to school exclusion on the child and caregivers. Background : research has highlighted that some mainstream schools do not listen to caregivers concerns about their child's development, behaviours and mental health. Methods : interpretative phenomenological analysis was employed to understand how participants made sense of their lived experiences, revealing four superordinate themes: inadequate special educational needs and disability (SEND) support, psychological impact, health-imposed barriers to diagnoses, and effective support. Findings : Theographs present the caregivers' journeys, illustrating that the onus fell on the caregivers to advocate for effective support from schools. A lack of prompt diagnose and effective school support is detrimental to the emotional and physical health of both children and caregivers. Training is needed to ensure thresholds for education, health and care needs assessments are understood, alongside evidence-based approaches to support children with SEND. There is a policy need to address barriers to prompt health assessments across services and the impact of decreased funding on schools.     

关于上海市辅读学校自闭症儿童就学现状的调查

本文主要采用访谈的方式围绕上海市十所辅读学校自闭症儿童的就学现状展开调查。调查从自闭症学生人数、学校师资(质量)、编班情况、教师态度、教学情况以及教学效果六个方面来探析上海市辅读学校自闭症儿童就学的现状。调查结果显示,辅读学校中自闭症儿童的人数在逐年提高,师资质量在不断提高,教师对自闭症儿童的关注程度以及教育情况在不断发展,对自闭症儿童的教学效果也取得了进步。但是自闭症儿童的就学还存在着一些欠缺的地方,师资配备还不是很完善,个别化教育计划的制订还没有做得很好。     

Investigating the social engagement of children with autism in mainstream schools for the purpose of identifying learning targets

The social needs of children with autism are complex, and their inclusion in mainstream schools necessitates a consideration of the nature of a child's participation in peer culture and how it is received by others. The case study reported here sought to investigate the social engagement of a child with autism and his peers using naturalistic methods to provide contextualised and detailed information. A comparative approach was used to study different social contexts: the wider class group, the peer group which included the child with autism, and the individual participation of the child with autism compared with this smaller group. Findings indicate that the child with autism demonstrated a number of competencies in relation to his own social group and that social difficulties were not necessarily seen as a weakness within the peer culture. The importance of careful analysis of social processes and the use of reflective assessment to autism education is highlighted.     

Back to basics: working with young children with autism in inclusive classrooms

Young children with autism benefit from various adaptations made to an early childhood classroom. This article includes modifications for both teacher‐directed and child‐initiated activities. Adaptations are given for the classroom environment, daily schedule, sensory needs, transitions and general teaching strategies. The techniques described are especially important when working with young children with autism, but are also helpful for all young children. The information provided is gained from several years of experience working with young children with autism in schools, homes and childcare.     

The experiences of learning,friendship and bullying of boys with autism in mainstream and special settings: a qualitative study

This study aimed to explore experiences of learning, friendships and bullying of boys with autism attending specialist and mainstream schools, and those of their parents. Semi‐structured interviews were conducted with 11 boys with autism, aged 11 to 17 years, and nine of their mothers. Thematic analysis identified four key themes relating to experiences of friendships and bullying, risk factors, protective factors and outcomes. Overall, the findings indicated that five of the 11 participants had been subjected to bullying, particularly those in mainstream schools (four out of six). Further, if risk factors relating to autism or the school culture were not mediated by protective factors such as self‐esteem or supportive friends, various negative outcomes were identified as more likely, including mental health issues and effects on learning and relationships. Therefore, although not inevitable, mainstream settings may increase the likelihood of negative experiences, as they have fewer resources to protect children against the risk of bullying.     

Evidence-based practice in autism educational research: can we bridge the research and practice gap?

In order to develop deeper and better understandings of what constitutes effective educational practices, and to bridge the gap between research and practice, there is a need for a paradigm shift in autism educational research. The contribution of this paper is to examine the key methodological challenges that stand in the way of autism educational research impacting on practice. This research field is dominated by experimental research designs that evaluate the impact of ‘interventions’ that focus on developing the skills, knowledge, and understanding of pupils with autism. For educational research to have an impact on the lives of individuals with autism, their families, and the practitioners who work with them, movement towards a more balanced range of methodologies is needed. This needs to include methodologies that situate the knowledge base of practitioners on a par with the knowledge base of researchers, drawing on the evidence base from the classroom itself, and bringing in the perspectives and views of individuals with autism, their families, and the practitioners who work with them.     

“My Three Wishes”: Hopes,Aspirations, and Concerns of Middle School Students

Inclusion in the general education classroom is becoming the placement of choice for many students with autism. Autism is a disorder that can impact many aspects of a child's learning experience. A child's profile along the continuum of Autism Spectrum Disorders dictates the severity of impairment in language engagement, social connectedness, sensory integration, and cognitive skills. This can often be overwhelming for teachers who are uninformed and untrained in the unique issues of autism. Teacher awareness and understanding of behaviors and perceptions unique to these disorders can facilitate the development and implementation of strategies created specifically to ease this potentially overwhelming situation for students and teachers.     

'I felt like I did something good'— the impact on mainstream pupils of a peer tutoring programme for children with autism

There have been many research projects studying the use of peer intervention strategies to develop the social, communication and interaction skills of children with autism, yet few of these studies focus in detail on the impact of such strategies on the mainstream peers. In this article, Val Jones, an advisory teacher for autism spectrum conditions, explores the impact of peer tutoring children with autism on the peer tutors themselves. This enquiry focuses on ten to eleven-year-old mainstream pupils who were paired with twelve children with autism and associated learning difficulties for weekly peer tutoring sessions at a primary school with a specialist autism unit. At the end of a series of tutoring sessions, the perspectives of the peer tutors were gathered through questionnaires. All of the peer tutors reported that they had enjoyed the experience and most felt that the peer tutoring had brought them direct benefits by building confidence, teaching responsibility, encouraging caring attitudes and helping them to acknowledge diversity. Val Jones also gathered the views of parents and school staff who again reported largely positive outcomes from the peer tutoring process. While this small-scale study focuses on findings from one school, there are wider implications here for the development of inclusive policies and practices and this article will be of interest to professionals working across the range of specialist and mainstream settings.     

Practitioners' perspectives and experiences of supporting bilingual pupils on the autism spectrum in two linguistically different educational settings

With greater linguistic diversity in educational settings around the world as a result of international migration, and a rise in autism diagnoses, educators are more frequently teaching children who are both neurodiverse and linguistically different to their peers. The aim of the present study was to uncover the perspectives and experiences of educational practitioners who provide support for bilingual learners on the autism spectrum in two linguistically different educational settings: England and Wales. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 13 practitioners (5 teachers, 4 teaching assistants, 3 special educational needs coordinators and 1 speech and language therapist) working in mainstream schools. Data were analysed using interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA), which seeks to illuminate participants' lived experience. Three superordinate themes were extracted from the data: (1) perspectives on bilingualism in autism; (2) comparisons across two linguistically different settings; (3) creating inclusive learning environments. The results demonstrate that practitioners had concerns about the feasibility of bilingualism for some autistic pupils, and argued that exposure to two languages may have a negative impact on their development. Future research should focus on finding effective ways to identify and support learning needs among bilingual pupils to ensure that children who are ‘doubly different’ from their peers not only have access to educational provision, but also have opportunities to harness and celebrate their differences.     

从神经可塑性角度探究自闭症早期干预的有效性

早期干预是国内外自闭症领域的研究热点,大量的实证研究表明早期干预能够有效改善自闭症的早期症状,特别是对于处在发展关键期的儿童。早期干预能够促进大脑沿着正常的轨迹发展,从而对早期发展中的大脑产生根本的影响。     

Assessing anxiety in youth with autism spectrum disorder

Anxiety is now recognized as one of the most common co-occurring conditions in youth diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Despite the prevalence of this comorbid condition, accurate assessment and diagnosis of anxiety in ASD has proven difficult. This paper will address the considerable research literature on assessing anxiety in youth with ASD, including difficulties related to assessment and differential diagnosis. In addition, this paper will describe relevant tools and methods for assessing anxiety in this complex population.     

Framing secondary teachers’ perspectives on the inclusion of students with autism spectrum disorder using critical discourse analysis

Research on the role of teachers in supporting students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in schools in the Republic of Ireland has largely focused on primary and special schools rather than secondary school settings. This study examined the theoretical and practical knowledge base of Irish secondary teachers regarding the inclusion of learners with ASD using an ecological critical discursive perspective. Findings revealed teachers’ strong desires to include students with ASD in their classrooms. Teachers’ discourses exposed their sense of low self-efficacy in relation to pedagogical skills required to meet the needs of learners with ASD. At a school level, teachers positioned themselves outside the dominant school discourse on special education needs. Using critical discourse analysis (CDA), teachers’ narratives re-focus the spotlight on issues such as ineffective legislation and inadequate policies at national level, and identified the impact that these have at a micro-analytical level on teachers’ practices in relation to inclusion.     

Teachers of learners with ASD in mainstream schools and classrooms in Spain: attitudes towards inclusive education

This study analyses the attitudes of teachers in Spain towards the inclusion of learners with autism spectrum disorder in mainstream education settings and their relationship with the perceived benefits of inclusion. The ex post facto prospective design included 180 teachers from 14 schools. Data were collected using a questionnaire on teachers' attitudes towards inclusive education and a second questionnaire on the benefits of inclusion developed for the specific purposes of this study. The results show teachers' positive attitudes towards inclusion as well as the benefits perceived. This study demonstrates the fundamental role of teachers' previous experience. Implications for inclusive cultures and practices in schools are discussed.     

Families of children on the autism spectrum: experience of daily life and impact of parent education

Information and support for families of children on the autism spectrum is limited in south-east Europe. A three-year project, Equity and Social Inclusion Through Positive Parenting (ESIPP), was established to develop and provide parent education (PE) in autism for families in Croatia, Cyprus and North Macedonia. This paper presents findings from Croatia regarding family life and the impact of PE. Data were collected via pre- and post-PE questionnaires and semi-structured interviews. Participants discussed the impact of autism on family life, the difficulty of obtaining a diagnosis, the importance of family support (and varying experience of formal support), common experiences of stigma and social exclusion and concerns for the future. The value and benefit of PE is identified, and recognition of its impact within Croatia has ensured its ongoing provision.