Behavioral, Affective, and Social Correlates of Involvement in Cross-Sex Friendship in Elementary School

The purpose of this study was to compare children with and without cross-sex friends on measures of social and cognitive competence, endorsement of sex-role stereotypes, and family composition. Subjects were 723 third and fourth graders (377 girls, 346 boys) from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds; 35% were African American. Measures included sociometric assessments of peer acceptance, friendship, and behavioral reputation, as well as self-reports of perceived self-competence and endorsement of sex-role stereotypes. In addition, teachers completed ratings of children's social and cognitive competence. In all, 92 children, about 14% of the sample, had one or more reciprocal opposite-sex friends; for 21 of these children, their cross-sex friendships were their primary or only friendships. African American children were more likely than European American children to have opposite-sex friends. Involvement in cross-sex friendships was unrelated to the gender make-up of the classroom, but was related to family structure. Comparisons of the children who had primarily or only cross-sex friends to matched groups of children who had only same-sex friends and to children who had cross-sex friends secondarily to same-sex ones revealed a number of differences between the groups in social competence and relationships with peers. Overall, children with primarily opposite-sex friends had poorer social skills than other children with friends, although they were less stereotyped about sex roles than other children, and were better adjusted than children with no friends on most measures. In contrast, children involved in opposite-sex friendship secondarily to same-sex friendship were as well adjusted socially as children with only same-sex friendships. These results suggest that children with cross-sex friends differ among themselves, depending on the primacy of the cross-sex relationship.     

Development of gender constancy and selective attention to same-sex models.

4 developmental levels of gender constancy were identified in 55 preschool-age children on the basis of a reproducible Guttman scale of answers to sets of questions pertaining to gender identity, gender stability over time, and gender consistency across situations. Children's developmental level of gender constancy was predictive of the amount and the proportion of time they attended to an adult male and an adult female film model. As boys developed gender constancy, their relative preference for watching the male model increased significantly; as girls developed gender constancy, their relative preference for watching the female model increased, though not significantly. At the more advanced levels of gender constancy, boys watched the male model more than did girls. It was suggested that same-sex social learning may develop as a function of children's cognitive understanding of gender as an identifiable, stable and consistent human attribute.     

Cross-sex friendship in children: Gender patterns and cultural perspectives

An understanding of cross-sex friendship patterns can highlight male-female interactions in ways not revealed through investigations of same-sex friendships. Therefore, children's cross-sex friendship choices in two cultures were studied to explore culture- and gender-related biases in the socialization of sex roles. Fifth graders in America and Sweden responded to two sociometric questions about help with schoolwork and secret-sharing. Differences across gender and culture lines provided support for the existence of biases in gender-role training that may differ among cultures. Questions were raised regarding the role of social agents in the development of social cognitions, the amenability to change of traditional sex-typed behaviors, and the differences among cultures that might influence social-cognitive development. The fact that some children make cross-sex choices suggests that socialization practices do not influence all children uniformly. These differences bear further study.     

Same- and cross-sex friends: Implications for interaction and social skills

Sex cleavages in toddler peer groups were investigated in two studies. In the first study, playmate preferences and initiations and responses to friends were examined. Three types of initiations and their responses were examined during the free play of 46 toddlers in day care centers. A preference for same-sex playmates was strongest in the oldest girls. Boys tended to ignore or refuse girls' initiations when the initiations took the form of specific requests to play a game compared with a more general approach. Friendships tended to be made with members of the same sex. However, children having same- and opposite-sex friends were less likely to initiate and respond to friends on the basis of sex. Children with fewer same-sex preferences initiated more games.In the second study, cross-sex friendships in 329 early toddlers, late toddlers, and preschool children were examined. Some children in all age groups had cross-sex friends, but the number decreased with age. Children with cross-sex friends appeared more socially skilled than children without cross-sex friends.     

Mutual antipathies and their significance in middle childhood and adolescence

Mutual antipathies (when two children or adolescents dislike one another) were studied among 2,348 school-age children and 2,768 adolescents to determine incidence, gender and age differences, and implications for social adjustment. The children were more frequently involved than were the adolescents in same-sex antipathies but not mixed-sex ones. Boys were involved more frequently than were girls in same-sex antipathies, but involvement in mixed-sex antipathies was comparable for the two genders. With peer rejection scores used as a covariate, same-sex antipathies were associated with antisocial behavior and social withdrawal among children and adolescents of both genders and, in addition, to emotionality and lack of friendship support among adolescents. Mixed-sex antipathies were related to social adjustment depending on gender: these antipathies were related to antisocial and bullying behavior in boys but not girls; and to nonaggressiveness, victimization, lesser cooperation, shyness, and depression in girls but not boys. Mutual antipathies thus appear to be concomitants of adaptational risk in both childhood and adolescence.     

Sex and Gender Similarities and Differences in Communication Values in Same-Sex and Cross-Sex Friendships

This study extends research on sex differences and similarities in communication values by examining (a) the influence of sex of friend on ratings of functional communication skills in same-sex and cross-sex friendships, (b) the moderating role of friend's sex in sex differences in evaluations, and (c) the mediating role of psychological gender in sex differences in communication values. Participants (144 men and 148 women) rated the importance of communication skills for either same-sex or cross-sex friends. Results indicate that, although men's and women's ratings of communication skills are similar, participant sex, gender, and sex of friend do exert some influence.     

Function and Content of Maternal Demands: Developmental Significance of Early Demands for Competent Action

The sources and effects of mothers' demands upon children were examined during naturalistic interactions of 70 mothers and their 1 1/2–3 1/2-year-olds. Demands were categorized in terms of immediate function (e.g., do's vs. don'ts) and content area emphasized by mothers (e.g., competent action, appropriate behavior, caretaking). Children's age and oppositional behavior influenced the nature of mothers' demands. Mothers with authoritative child-rearing attitudes emphasized proactive, competence-oriented demands and avoided regulatory controls. Maternal demands for competent action (prosocial behavior, chores, cognitive/play) predicted enhanced compliance and fewer behavior problems at age 5. Demands focused on the regulation of personal and social behavior predicted more behavior problems at age 5. We propose that children's personal and social competence emerges from pressures for instrumentally competent behavior in a harmonious interactive context.     

Emotional and Behavioral Predictors of Preschool Peer Ratings

It was predicted that social cognitive, behavioral, and affective aspects of young children's social development would predict stable peer ratings of their likability. Measures of likability, emotion knowledge, prosocial and aggressive behavior, peer competence, and expressed emotions (happy and angry) were obtained for 65 subjects (mean age = 44 months). Sociometric ratings, particularly negative, were stable over 1- and 9-month time periods. Correlational analyses showed that emotion knowledge and prosocial behavior were direct predictors of likability. Prosocial behavior mediated the relations of gender and expressed emotions with likability (i.e., gender and expressed emotions were each related to prosocial behavior, and prosocial behavior was related to likability, but neither gender nor expressed emotions were related to likability with prosocial behavior partialled out). Knowledge of emotional situations similarly mediated the age-likability relation. Results uphold the early development of stable peer reputations and the hypothesized centrality of emotion-related predictors of likability.     

Children's Affectionate Behavior Gender Differences

The purpose of this study was to examine differences in (a) the amount of affectionate behavior expressed by boys and girls and (b) the types of recipients of boys' and girls' affectionate behavior. Data were collected by conducting naturalistic observations of 76 children (32 males and 44 females) in six daycare centers. The affectionate behaviors observed were smiling, affectionate words, and active and passive affectionate physical contact. The results indicated that children's affectionate behavior was not gender typed as defined by social learning theory. However, there were gender differences related to the recipients of children's affectionate behavior. Children expressed more affection to (a) individual children and teachers than to groups and (b) same-gender peers than to opposite-gender peers. The specific behaviors making important contributions to the overall differences between boys' and girls' expressions of affection to male and female children differed. The results indicate there is a need to include the interpersonal context of the behavior when examining gender differences and to expand theory and research on the role of affection in children's development and relationships.     

Romantic Dyads, Friendships, and the Social Skill Ratings of Preschool Children

The incidence of romantic, same-sex friendships and CMSS-sex friendship dyads was examined in preschools and daycare centers. The objectives were to demonstrate the existence of preschool romances, to describe behavior patterns that characterize these relationships, and to compare the social skills of the three dyad groups using the Social Skills Rating Scale (Gresham & Elliott, 1990). No significant difference in social skills existed between the groups. The results suggest that preschool romances and cross-sex friendships are common occurrences and do not interfere with normal development of social skills.     

Romantic Dyads,Friendships, and the Social Skill Ratings of Preschool Children

The incidence of romantic, same-sex friendships and CMSS-sex friendship dyads was examined in preschools and daycare centers. The objectives were to demonstrate the existence of preschool romances, to describe behavior patterns that characterize these relationships, and to compare the social skills of the three dyad groups using the Social Skills Rating Scale (Gresham & Elliott, 1990). No significant difference in social skills existed between the groups. The results suggest that preschool romances and cross-sex friendships are common occurrences and do not interfere with normal development of social skills.     

Predictors of change in mothers’ and fathers’ parent-child aggression risk

Parents' cognitive schemas about parenting, personal vulnerabilities, and personal resources may affect their risk of engaging in parent-child aggression (PCA). This longitudinal study examined predictors of change in mothers' and fathers' PCA risk across the transition to parenthood, comparing trajectories of parents evidencing high versus low sociodemographic risk. Potential predictors involved parenting-relevant schemas (consistent with Social Information Processing theory, including approval of PCA, negative attributions of child behavior, and knowledge of nonphysical discipline options), personal vulnerabilities (psychopathology, intimate partner violence, substance use issues), and resources (problem-focused coping, emotion regulation, social support, and partner satisfaction). Results indicated that increases in PCA approval, negative child behavior attributions, and symptoms of psychopathology, as well as decreases in problem-focused coping skills, emotion regulation ability, and partner satisfaction, all significantly predicted changes in mothers' and fathers' PCA risk over time—regardless of risk group status. Notably, increases in intimate partner violence victimization and decreases in social support satisfaction predicted mothers' but not fathers' PCA risk change; moreover, increases in knowledge of nonphysical discipline alternatives or in substance use issues did not predict change in PCA risk for either mothers or fathers. Risk groups differed in PCA risk across all predictors with minimal evidence of differential trajectories. Overall, these findings have important implications for child abuse prevention programs involving both universal and secondary abuse prevention efforts.     

Gender differences in cognitive abilities of opposite-sex and same-sex twin pairs with reading disabilty

In order to compare the pattern of gender differences for cognitive measures in opposite-sex twin pairs to that in independent samples of twins from same-sex pairs, psychometric test data were obtained from four research-identified samples of children: (1) 96 pairs of opposite-sex fraternal twins in which at least one member of each pair is reading disabled; (2) 62 pairs of opposite-sex fraternal twins with no history of reading problems; (3) 167 males and 155 females from same-sex identical and same-sex fraternal twin pairs in which at least one member of each pair is reading disabled; and (4) a comparison sample of 126 males and 132 females from same-sex twin pairs with no history of reading problems. Results of multivariate analyses indicate that gender differences for cognitive measures are similar in twin pairs with and without reading disabilities. Moreover, a highly similar pattern of gender differences occurs for opposite-sex twin pairs who shared both prenatal and early postnatal influences and for independent samples of children from different families.     

Children's Affectionate Behavior Gender Differences

The purpose of this study was to examine differences in (a) the amount of affectionate behavior expressed by boys and girls and (b) the types of recipients of boys' and girls' affectionate behavior. Data were collected by conducting naturalistic observations of 76 children (32 males and 44 females) in six daycare centers. The affectionate behaviors observed were smiling, affectionate words, and active and passive affectionate physical contact. The results indicated that children's affectionate behavior was not gender typed as defined by social learning theory. However, there were gender differences related to the recipients of children's affectionate behavior. Children expressed more affection to (a) individual children and teachers than to groups and (b) same-gender peers than to opposite-gender peers. The specific behaviors making important contributions to the overall differences between boys' and girls' expressions of affection to male and female children differed. The results indicate there is a need to include the interpersonal context of the behavior when examining gender differences and to expand theory and research on the role of affection in children's development and relationships.     

Gender labels and early sex role development.

A series of tests was designed for 24-, 30-, and 36-month-old children to measure their ability to apply various gender labels to the appropriate sexes, their capacity to place themselves in their own gender category, and their usage of labels to guide preference behavior. Also, the child's awareness of sex role stereotyping and the relationship of the above measures to parental SES and sex role attitudes were examined. In general, unlike the younger children, the oldest children consistently applied gender labels properly, were certain of their own gender, used same-sex gender labels to guide behavior, and were aware of sex role stereotyping. There was no relation between these measures and demographic variables.     

Changing Social Dynamics in Early Childhood Classrooms

The purpose of this study was to analyze how social dynamics in early childhood classrooms change from fall to spring and from early to late preschool. The subjects were 92 preschoolers in age-stratified (3-year-old, 4-year-old, and 5-year-old) classrooms. Their sociometric ratings and peer contact patterns were recorded during the fall and spring. From early to late preschool, children's sociometric ratings became increasingly negative, especially toward cross-sex peers. Their contact patterns showed an analogous decrease in cross-sex contacts, although the changes were not as linear as those in the sociometric ratings. The analysis of group sizes showed that the 4-year-olds spent more time in larger groups than both their younger and older peers did. Group sociometric ratings and contact patterns changed from fall to spring, but individual children showed considerable stability in the sociometric ratings that they gave their peers and in the size and gender composition of their play groups.     

Gender, adult structuring of activities, and social behavior in middle childhood

The study was designed to test the relations among gender, adult-provided activity structure, and social behavior for children in middle childhood. Adult-provided structure was defined as verbally presented rules, guidelines, suggestions, and modeling. Children aged 7-11 years attended a 1-week summer day camp in which activities characterized by high or low adult structure were available. As predicted, girls spent more time in highly structured activities, whereas boys spent more time in low-structure activities. Once in high-structure activities, however, both genders displayed high rates of adult-directed bids for recognition, leadership attempts, and compliance and low rates of peer interaction. In low-structure activities, children directed high rates of leadership and other social behaviors to same-sex peers. Children who chose high-structure activities most often were also most likely to interact with adults in those activities. Those who chose low-structure activities showed the highest rates of interaction with male peers. Sex-typed personality attributes were not related to activity choice. The results are interpreted in a framework encompassing the interactions of "person" attributes, environmental variables, and behavior.     

Social Cognition,Language, and Prosocial Behaviors: A Multitrait Mixed-Methods Study in Early Childhood

Research Findings: In this study, we investigated associations among social cognition skills (specifically, emotion knowledge and theory of mind), language abilities, and 3 varieties of prosocial behavior (helping, sharing, and comforting) in early childhood. The effects of age and gender were also taken into account. Participants were 149 Italian children between 24 and 47 months of age (M = 35.6 months, SD = 6.77 months). We adopted a multitrait mixed-methods research design, using direct measures of emotion knowledge, theory of mind, and language as well as naturalistic observations of children’s free play with peers to detect the frequency with which they engaged in prosocial behaviors. Ordinal logistic regression analyses showed that helping behaviors were especially accounted for by emotion knowledge and gender, whereas variance in sharing behaviors was mostly explained by theory-of-mind ability and language. Practice or Policy: The findings encourage those involved in early childhood education to develop training and intervention programs to enhance children’s emotional, linguistic, and cognitive skills. Given that these results were obtained with children as young as 2 and 3 years, preventive intervention should be implemented during the earliest years of life.