Types of touch in cross-sex relationships between coworkers: perceptions of relational and emotional messages, inappropriateness, and sexual harassment

This study examined observers' perceptions of nine different types of touch (including a "no touch" control condition) used in cross-sex relationships between coworkers. Results showed that face touch sends particularly strong relational and emotional messages. A soft touch in the cheek area of the face was seen as signaling more affection, attraction, flirtation, and love than the other types of touch. Face touch was also rated as the most inappropriate and sexually harassing of the nine types of touch examined. Arm around the waist was also rated as showing relatively high levels of attraction and flirtation, as well as inappropriateness and harassment. No touch and handshaking conveyed the most formality. Observers rated women as more affectionate, trusting, happy, and composed than men across the touch conditions. Men, however, were judged to be more attracted to their cross-sex partners than were women. These and other findings are discussed to shed light on the multiple interpretations of touch within the context of relationships between cross-sex coworkers.     

Types of touch in cross-sex relationships between coworkers: perceptions of relational and emotional messages,inappropriateness, and sexual harassment

This study examined observers' perceptions of nine different types of touch (including a "no touch" control condition) used in cross-sex relationships between coworkers. Results showed that face touch sends particularly strong relational and emotional messages. A soft touch in the cheek area of the face was seen as signaling more affection, attraction, flirtation, and love than the other types of touch. Face touch was also rated as the most inappropriate and sexually harassing of the nine types of touch examined. Arm around the waist was also rated as showing relatively high levels of attraction and flirtation, as well as inappropriateness and harassment. No touch and handshaking conveyed the most formality. Observers rated women as more affectionate, trusting, happy, and composed than men across the touch conditions. Men, however, were judged to be more attracted to their cross-sex partners than were women. These and other findings are discussed to shed light on the multiple interpretations of touch within the context of relationships between cross-sex coworkers.     

Examining the dimensionality of performance feedback messages: Source and recipient perceptions of influence attempts

Performance feedback is considered an effective means of influencing organizational members. Nevertheless, recipient perceptions regarding such attempts to motivate, change, and/or reinforce certain behaviors and attitudes will determine the eventual response. Often these responses are unexpected and less than desirable. Efforts to better understand the performance feedback construct have produced conceptions emphasizing its complexity and multidimensionality. However, a recent challenge to the usefulness and /or validity of such conceptualizations has prompted the research reported here. This study explores feedback recipients’ and sources’ perceptions of the underlying dimensionality or “hidden structure” of performance feedback messages.     

A typology of disengagement strategies and an examination of the role intimacy,reactions to inequity and relational problems play in strategy selection

An inductive analysis employing cluster analysis and multidimensional scaling was conducted in Study I to develop, in conjunction with previous literature, a five‐factor typology of disengagement strategies: behavioral de‐escalation, de‐escalation, justification, positive tone and negative identity management. In Study II, perceived intimacy, anger and guilt over the allocation of resources in the relationship and three general factors of relational problems (target's behavior constrained the disengager, target had personal faults and target failed to compromise) were employed as independent variables influencing strategy selection. Intimacy, factors of problems and felt anger influenced the selection of strategies. Comparison of methods (rated usage of strategies vs. constructed strategies) uncovered discrepancies in the two methods for negative identity management and positive tone strategies. Recommendations concerning future research were noted.     

Routine and strategic maintenance efforts: behavioral patterns,variations associated with relational length,and the prediction of relational characteristics

The goal of the present study was to examine the patterns of relationships between routine and strategic maintenance enactment. Data were collected from 189 individuals in a romantic relationship. Results indicated that positivity and sharing tasks were more often performed routinely than strategically. Second, moderate to strong, positive correlations were found among the strategic use of maintenance behaviors, and also moderate to strong, positive correlations among the routine use of maintenance behaviors. However, virtually no relationships emerged between the routine and strategic use of maintenance. Next, both strategic and routine maintenance efforts were important in predicting satisfaction and commitment, but routine maintenance was slightly more important in predicting both satisfaction and commitment. Finally, three significant, positive correlations were found between the length of the relationship and routine maintenance performance (network, conflict management, and sharing tasks), and one significant, negative correlation was found between the length of the relationship and the strategic use of openness.     

Embarrassment: The effects of embarrassor and target perceptions

This study investigated the role perception plays in embarrassing situations between same‐sex friends. We argued that when two same‐sex friends share a common experience where one was embarrassed due to something the friend did or said, the embarrassors and targets would differ in (a) their perceptions relating to the degree of embarrassment falt, (b) their attribution of intentionality, and (c) the degree to which the embarrassment affected their relationship. One hundred and sixty‐three same‐sex friend dyads were asked to report their perceptions about a commonly shared embarrassing incident. Results showed that only 52.5% (n = 84) of the embarrassors recognized that the target experienced embarrassment. Further analyses were then conducted on these 84 dyads. We found that embarrassors and targets tend to agree on the intent of the embarrassor. However, no associations were found between perspective and degree of embarrassment felt nor degree of relationship consequences. Implications of the findings and limitations are discussed.     

Balancing instrumental and identity goals in relationships: The role of request directness and request persistence in the selection of sexual resistance strategies

Research on sexual resistance has contributed significantly to our understanding of the strategies used by resisters, but has been relatively devoid of theoretical applications that shed light on mechanisms underlying the choice of strategy. Moreover, existing research in this area has mostly ignored the interactive and processual nature of sexual encounters. This investigation applied the general frameworks of Politeness Theory and Planning Theory to explain the selection of sexual resistance strategies following both initial and persisting requests. In addition, we investigated the contingent effects of request directness on characteristics of the resistance message and tested the influence of resister sex on strategy choice. The results extend knowledge in this area of inquiry by showing the impact of apparently shifting goals hierarchies for changes in strategy choice within the interaction. The implications of our findings for theoretical and applied claims about sexual resistance contexts are discussed, and suggestions for future research are advanced.     

Deregulation and public perceptions of television: A longitudinal study

The deregulation of television and resulting implications for programming and the public interest have been the focus of considerable debate. This study investigated perceptions of issues related to current policy, perceptions of the effectiveness of television in meeting informational needs, and whether perceptions have changed since deregulation. Significant differences were found between pre‐ and post‐deregulation attitudes toward policy‐related issues and the quantity of commercials on television. Perceptions of the amount of news broadcast, coverage of local issues, and the extent to which programming meets local needs revealed no significant change since deregulation. The results revealed strong public support for the requirement that broadcasters cover more than one side of controversial issues.     

Teachers' perceptions of teacher and librarian collaboration: Instrumentation development and validation

Teacher and librarian collaboration is recommended in professional library and information science guidelines for school librarians. The guidelines suggest that when school librarians become an integral part of instruction, student learning improves. A proposed model of teacher and librarian collaboration identifies four facets of collaborative practices that are involved in teacher and librarian collaboration. The teacher and librarian collaboration model suggests that high level collaborative endeavors are most likely to have an effect on student learning. Exploratory factor analysis procedures were used to examine the structure of the Teacher and Librarian Collaboration (TLC-II) survey, an instrument developed using previously described collaborative endeavors between teachers and librarians. The analysis used responses from a sample of teachers from two school districts in the United States. Exploratory factor analysis was carried out on teacher scores (N = 194) for each of two sets of 16 questions regarding frequency of collaborative endeavors and importance to student learning. Cronbach's alpha was used to determine internal consistency reliability of the survey. Four factors emerged: Integrated Instruction, Integrated Curriculum, Coordination, and traditional cooperative roles between teacher and librarian. The factorial validity needs to be assessed with confirmatory factor analysis.     

Responses to nonverbal intimacy change in romantic dyads: Effects of behavioral valence and degree of behavioral change on nonverbal and verbal reactions

Various theories of nonverbal adaptation feature behavioral valence (i.e., positive vs. negative behavior) and degree of behavioral change (e.g., very low vs. low intimacy) as critical elements affecting whether changes in nonverbal intimacy are met with reciprocity or compensation. The present study, which utilizes data from 100 romantic dyads, makes comparisons across five conditions: very low intimacy, low intimacy, very high intimacy, high intimacy, and a no change (control) condition. Repeated measures analyses of variance showed that targets in the two high intimacy conditions reciprocated their partners' intimacy change by appearing more nonverbally involved and pleasant and engaging in more verbal intimacy. Targets in the two low intimacy conditions also reciprocated by becoming less nonverbally pleasant and fluent as well as more verbally hostile. However, these targets also used verbal repair strategies, thereby showing some degree of compensation. Targets in the very low intimacy condition also became more vocally anxious and less composed after their partners decreased intimacy. Targets in the very low intimacy condition were abo particularly likely to engage in verbal repair strategies. These and other findings are discussed in light of their implications for applying theories of nonverbal intimacy exchange to the context of romantic relationships.     

Examining the quality of social support messages produced face-to-face and in computer-mediated communication: The effects of hyperpersonal communication

ABSTRACT

The hyperpersonal communication model was used to investigate the implications of the reduced social cues in computer-mediated communication (CMC) for the production of social support messages. Participants were randomly assigned to interact with a confederate seeking help about a problem for which the confederate was or was not responsible. The interactions took place either face-to-face or in one of two CMC conditions. The results were partially consistent with the intensification effect proposed in the hyperpersonal model. Participants evaluated the confederate most negatively, but produced the highest quality support messages, in the CMC condition with visual anonymity followed by the CMC condition and face-to-face condition. Participants’ evaluations of the confederate were also influenced by the confederate’s responsibility for their problem.     

Strategic topic avoidance: an investigation of topic avoidance frequency,strategies used,and relational correlates

This research stresses the need to examine the relationship between topic avoidance and relational correlates (e.g., satisfaction and emotional closeness) from a message production theoretical perspective. Our approach—strategic topic avoidance—offers additional explanatory capabilities as the strategies with which interactants in close relationships avoid topics may be associated with perceptions of the relationship (after accounting for topic avoidance frequency). Moreover, relational correlates may also vary by the combination of overall topic avoidance frequency and certain topic avoidance strategies. The current research, therefore, assessed individuals' topic avoidance frequency levels and the frequency of using topic avoidance strategies in relation to satisfaction and closeness across three different relational types (i.e., significant others, mother–young‐adult, and father–young‐adult relationships). Results suggested that avoiding certain topics, such as current relational concerns, predicted levels of satisfaction and closeness across relationship types; however, cross‐relational differences also emerged. Strategies employed to avoid topics accounted for additional variance in satisfaction and closeness for relationships with significant others and mothers but not fathers. Analyses also demonstrated that overall topic avoidance frequency interacted with topic avoidance strategy use.     

Defining rules and roles in instructional contexts: A preliminary assessment of student perceptions

The classroom across the academy suffers from a most unbalanced approach to instructional research. The vast majority of instructional research is grounded squarely in an instructor's point of view. The student perspective is often neglected or ignored. Adding a more robust student perspective to scholarly discourse on the rules and roles, the various procedural and behavioral patterns that emerge over time, appropriate to our understanding of the classroom would move us toward a more balanced understanding of the phenomena. This study employs a triangulated method to examine the views of rules and roles in the classroom held by 155 student participants. Results suggest that students view their own demands for rule‐following and role behavior as far less rigorous than those they perceive for instructors. The findings suggest that an overall re‐orientation of instruction to better facilitate classroom communication may well be in order.     

Effectiveness of health messages to change women's thin-ideal and unhealthy weight control intentions: Connecting social norms and social networks approaches

The thin-ideal is becoming increasingly dominant among women in Eastern Asian countries such as China and South Korea. The internalization of the thin-ideal leads to body image disturbance and unhealthy weight-control behaviors. Based on the social networks and social norms approaches, this study tests the effectiveness of normative messages in reducing women's internationalization of the thin-ideal and weight-control intentions through an experiment among female college students in China. It investigates how the following three factors: content of normative message (psychoeducational or feminist), source of the message (strong ties or weak ties), and characteristics of the recipients (self-weight evaluations) influence women's body image and weight-control intentions. Results of this study suggest that normative messages with a psychoeducational approach delivered through strong ties are more effective in decreasing women's internalization of the thin-ideal than the same message delivered through weak ties. In contrast, normative messages with a feminist approach delivered through weak ties are more effective in reducing women's internalization of the thin-ideal and unhealthy weight-control intentions than the same messages delivered through strong ties. There is an interaction effect between message content and recipients' self-weight evaluation. The theoretical and practical implications of this study are discussed.     

Students' perceptions of teachers' nonverbal behavior: Comparison of American and international students' classroom response

For some international students, teachers' nonverbal immediacy may constitute a violation of expectations in classroom behavior. Using Expectancy Violation Theory framework, this study investigated differences in students ‘perceptions of teachers’ nonverbal immediacy by comparing American and international students studying in the U.S. The findings confirmed that (1) teachers' nonverbal immediacy is perceived as more appropriate by American students than by international students, (2) there are differences in evaluations of specific nonverbal immediacy behaviors by American students and international students, and (3) perceptions depended on student gender for some behaviors, but not teacher's gender. Learning was more positively related to perceived immediacy behaviors for international students than their American counterparts.     

Social influence in groups: A comparative application of relational framing theory and the elaboration likelihood model of persuasion

Normative influence, as opposed to informational influence, in groups often diminishes decision-making outcomes. Despite the important effect of social influence on group performance, prior research on social influence in groups has largely focused on variable analytic conditions that affect influence, instead of on theoretical explanations of the use of social influence. This paper addressed that limitation by applying Relational Framing Theory (Dillard, Solomon, & Samp, 1996) and the Elaboration Likelihood Model (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986) to social influence in groups. A 3 (group interaction goal: task, group, control)×2 (involvement: high or control) factorial design experiment was conducted to test the applicability of these two theories. Results demonstrated that neither theory predicted the occurrence of normative and informational statements in discussion. Additional tests, however, showed greater general support for Relational Framing Theory.     

Relationship stages: An inductive analysis identifying cognitive,affective, and behavioral dimensions of Knapp's relational stages model

Knapp's (1978) ten stage model of relationships has been widely cited and endorsed, nonetheless a solid empirical foundation for this model is lacking. This study was conducted to provide the preliminary information necessary to identify, empirically, the stages of “coming together”; and “coming apart”;. Focus groups were conducted to identify behavioral, cognitive, and affective dimensions indicative of the ten stages proposed by the Knapp model. Findings indicate that people generally report different thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in each stage. The findings are discussed in terms of the further development of Knapp's model and creation of a corresponding measurement scale. Directions for future research involving the development of such a scale are also discussed.     

Interpersonal communication motives and message design logic: exploring their interaction on perceptions of competence

Message design logic and interpersonal communication motives were conjointly studied to assess their interaction on receivers' perceptions of senders' competence. Two 8 (motive)×3 (message design logic) repeated measures ANOVAs indicated significant interaction effects for both effectiveness and appropriateness. Nevertheless, the effects of design logic and motive on perceptions of competence were not as expected for some situations. The results of the study fail to support past research suggesting that perceived effectiveness and appropriateness will be enhanced by using a more complex message design. In addition, no pattern emerged for the instrumental versus the ritualistic motivations in terms of the most competent message design.     

Reintroducing taboo topics: Antecedents and consequences of putting topics back on the table

Relational partners often experience intractable disagreements. When confronting such arguments, they sometimes declare the topic taboo and thereby remove it from further discussion. However, research does not inform as to whether or how such topics can be reintroduced for discussion. We argued that topics are most likely to be reintroduced when the conditions that led to their banishment are no longer relevant. We also anticipated that reintroducing the topic through a planned interaction rather than an unplanned conversation or event would be more common when the topic concerned some aspect of the relationship. However, a planned interaction would be less likely when the topic focused on extra‐relational activities, prior relationships, or attitudinal differences between partners. We also posited that reinstating the topic would create more positive reactions when the reason for reintroduction flowed from changed conditions and was planned than when not. A survey of individuals involved in dating relationships indicates that most could report topics that were once taboo and then reinstated. Our hypotheses were generally supported. Future directions for research are discussed.     

Use and perceptions of information among family physicians: sources considered accessible,relevant, and reliable

Objectives:

The research determined (1) the information sources that family physicians (FPs) most commonly use to update their general medical knowledge and to make specific clinical decisions, and (2) the information sources FPs found to be most physically accessible, intellectually accessible (easy to understand), reliable (trustworthy), and relevant to their needs.

Methods:

A cross-sectional postal survey of 792 FPs and locum tenens, in full-time or part-time medical practice, currently practicing or on leave of absence in the Canadian province of Saskatchewan was conducted during the period of January to April 2008.

Results:

Of 666 eligible physicians, 331 completed and returned surveys, resulting in a response rate of 49.7% (331/666). Medical textbooks and colleagues in the main patient care setting were the top 2 sources for the purpose of making specific clinical decisions. Medical textbooks were most frequently considered by FPs to be reliable (trustworthy), and colleagues in the main patient care setting were most physically accessible (easy to access).

Conclusions:

When making specific clinical decisions, FPs were most likely to use information from sources that they considered to be reliable and generally physically accessible, suggesting that FPs can best be supported by facilitating easy and convenient access to high-quality information.

Highlights

• Medical textbooks were the most popular information source for family physicians'' (FPs'') clinical decision-making purposes, and medical journals were the most popular information source for the purpose of updating FPs'' general medical knowledge.
• FPs considered medical textbooks to be the most reliable (trustworthy) source, colleagues the most physically accessible, and continuing medical education the most relevant and intellectually accessible.
• The lowest ranked information sources across all four attributes were personal digital assistants, mental health professionals, pharmaceutical sales representatives, and other decision aids.

Implications

• The most popular information sources for clinical decision-making purposes among FPs were sources characterized as reliable and generally physically accessible.
• This study suggests the need for further research into interventions that target information access barriers in FPs'' practice settings and the promotion of reliable evidence for FPs'' clinical decision-making purposes.