The Dark Side of Instruction: Teacher Anger as Classroom Norm Violations

Based on norm violation theory, we examined students' reactions to teachers' normative and nonnormative expressions of anger. College students ( N = 301 ) judged the appropriateness and intensity of teachers' anger in the classroom for four modes of expression: Distributive Aggression, Passive Aggression, Integrative Assertion, and Nonassertive Denial. Students rated both types of aggressive expressions as highly intense and inappropriate (or nonnormative), but assertive displays as appropriate and less intense. Additionally, aggressive expressions were negatively related to students' affect, whereas assertive expressions were positively related to affect. Findings extend norm violation theory by identifying how teacher anger should be expressed and when during the semester anger is more likely to be perceived as inappropriate. Moreover, this study illustrates how normative violations of anger are associated with negative evaluations of the teacher and course.     

The Dark Side of Instruction: Teacher Anger as Classroom Norm Violations

Based on norm violation theory, we examined students' reactions to teachers' normative and nonnormative expressions of anger. College students ( N = 301 ) judged the appropriateness and intensity of teachers' anger in the classroom for four modes of expression: Distributive Aggression, Passive Aggression, Integrative Assertion, and Nonassertive Denial. Students rated both types of aggressive expressions as highly intense and inappropriate (or nonnormative), but assertive displays as appropriate and less intense. Additionally, aggressive expressions were negatively related to students' affect, whereas assertive expressions were positively related to affect. Findings extend norm violation theory by identifying how teacher anger should be expressed and when during the semester anger is more likely to be perceived as inappropriate. Moreover, this study illustrates how normative violations of anger are associated with negative evaluations of the teacher and course.     

Social norms and expectancy violation theories: assessing the effectiveness of health communication campaigns

College students' processing of alcohol, smoking, and exercise social norms messages, and related effects on judgments, attitudes toward one's own behaviors, and attitudes toward undergraduates' behaviors were examined using social norms marketing and Expectancy Violation Theory (EVT) (N=393). Receiving statistical social norms messages led to an expectancy violation of the perceived social norm (i.e., a discrepancy between the expected and actual statistic conveyed with a message). Consistent with Boster et al. (), the effect of the message discrepancy on attitudes was mediated by judgments. In accordance with social norms, when participants were provided with a statistic, the majority moved their judgments (but not their attitudes) toward the provided statistic, a result only consistent with EVT in the case of positive violations. The results have multiple implications: (1) social norms messages may work to change judgments, but do not result in consistent attitude change; (2) the process of judgment change functions similarly across message topics, as well as message types (i.e., attitudinal versus behavioral); (3) judgment change does not appear to be the main cause for attitude change upon receipt of a social norms message; and (4) a message‐based expectancy violation does not function in the same way as a violated behavioral expectation.     

Deception Detection Accuracy is a Predictable Linear Function of Message Veracity Base-Rate: A Formal Test of Park and Levine's Probability Model

This study provided the first empirical test of point predictions made by the Park-Levine probability model of deception detection accuracy. Participants viewed a series of interviews containing truthful answers, unsanctioned, high-stakes lies, or some combination of both. One randomly selected set of participants (n=50) made judgments where the probability that each message was honest was P(H)=.50. Accuracy judgments in this condition were used to generate point predictions generated from the model and tested against the results from a second set of data (n=413). Participants were randomly assigned to one of eight base-rate conditions where the probability that a message was honest systematically varied from 0.00 to 1.00. Consistent with the veracity effect, participants in P(H)=.50 condition were significantly more likely to judge messages as truths than as lies, and consequently truths (67%) were identified with greater accuracy than lies (34%). As predicted by the model, overall accuracy was a linear function of message veracity base-rate, the base-rate induction explained 24% of the variance in accuracy scores, and, on average, raw accuracy scores for specific conditions were predicted to within approximately±2.6%. The findings show that specific deception detection accuracy scores can be precisely predicted with the Park-Levine model.     

Abstracts of theses in the field of speech,XVI∗

The effects of interpersonal reward and violations of conversational distancing expectations on compliance and interaction behaviors were tested in three retail shopping settings. Subjects were salespeople (N = 70, N = 49, N = 104) who were approached by confederates posing as customers or students conducting interviews on consumer behavior. Two levels of interpersonal reward (high versus low levels of apparent status, attractiveness, purchasing power and/or expertise) and three levels of distance (close violation, norm, far violation) were manipulated. Results showed high reward to induce more compliance with a request and more favorable interaction patterns than low reward. Distance violations evoked more arousal, activation and apparent distraction, while the favorability of reactions to distance violations tended to vary by reward level, as expected. Confounding effects of gender, confederate communication style, and possible nonverbal norms for compensation and reciprocity are also discussed.     

Post‐probe decision making in a prison context

If a listener becomes suspicious during a conversation, and asks questions (probes) of a speaker, the listener tends to judge the speaker's message as honest. This result has been termed the probing effect (McCornack, Levine, Aleman, Oetzel, & Miller, ). This study hypothesized that an untested decision‐making phenomenon, an opposite probing effect, or a post‐probe tendency to judge a message as deceptive, might occur when lie‐biased individuals judge statement veracity. Prison inmates and non‐inmates participated in dyads as judges and speakers. Speakers watched a video, and then lied or told the truth to judges. Judges covertly showed thumbs up or down before asking questions, and subsequently made post‐probe judgments. Findings indicate that inmates use heuristic processing to a greater extent than non‐inmates, and that inmates, surprisingly, exhibit a probing effect, and not an opposite probing effect, when heuristic processing is employed to decide message veracity.     

When norms are violated: imagined interactions as processing and coping mechanisms

Relying on the fundamental assumption of violation theories that norm violations stimulate receiver thought processes, we explored receivers' symbolic cognitive processes in response to particular types of norm violations. Specifically, we reasoned that imagined interactions serve as a processing mechanism whereby individuals review the behavior of another, identify the type of norm violation, and make decisions about how to respond-all within their efforts to cope with deviations from norms. Utilizing the classroom context, we examined how teacher norm violations, operationalized as teacher misbehaviors, provoke students' imagined interaction activity. Results revealed that imagined interactions were used in respect to all three types of violations profiled and that participants were significantly more likely to engage in imagined interactions than to interact with or confront norm violators. The results are discussed in terms of implications for extending violation theories to include context-based goal attainment and power differentials between interactants.     

Editorial

Drawing on communication accommodation theory in a law enforcement context, young adults rated one of four written vignettes wherein an accommodating or nonaccommodating police officer issued a ticket for a minor or major traffic violation. The officer was rated less favorably along both cognitive and affective dimensions when he nonaccommodated rather than accommodated the offender. The effect of officer accommodation on evaluations of officer competence and social attractiveness were both mediated by intergroup sensitivity. These effects, which supported the theory, emerged irrespective of the severity of the violation. The findings add to the literature regarding the effects of intergroup sensitivity and open up new affective parameters for communication accommodation.     

The effects of truth–lie base-rates on deception detection accuracy in Korea

Two experiments provided the first tests of the Park-Levine Probability Model in an intercultural context. The Park-Levine Model predicts a linear relationship between truth–lie base-rates in messages judged and the proportion of correct truth-lie judgments. Korean students watched and judged videotapes of American students denying that they cheated on a task. The proportion of honest and deceptive denials was experimentally varied to be predominantly honest, equally honest and deceptive, or predominantly deceptive. A second experiment clarified the results of the first experiment by providing a stronger base-rate manipulation. The data were consistent with the prediction that as proportion of judged messages is increasingly honest, there is a corresponding linear increase in accurate truth–lie discrimination. These results add to a growing number of findings showing the cross- and intercultural applicability of Truth-Default Theory.     

Trust in media and government: A recursive model for natives of Hong Kong and Mainland China

This study explored whether a female student's level of attractiveness affects the degree to which she is believed when making a claim of sexual harassment, and whether attractiveness is related to perceptions of how likely it is that she will be sexually harassed. Participants viewed one of three photographs of a female model who was made to appear a) unattractive, b) attractive and pristine, or c) attractive but not pristine. Afterwards they read a case file in which the photographed model claimed to have been sexually harassed by one of her professors. Finally, participants rated the photographed model's veracity and their perceptions regarding how likely it was that the model would be sexually harassed. Results indicated that when she was perceived as unattractive, the model was rated as more deceptive and less likely to be harassed than when she was perceived as attractive, regardless of whether she was perceived to be pristine or not. These results and their implications are discussed.     

Group and individual accuracy in deception detection

Previous research examining the accuracy of deception detection judgments by individuals has concluded that the ability to detect deception is only slightly better than chance. Research has also found that individuals tend to be over‐confident, truth‐biased, and reliant on nonverbal behavior when making veracity judgments. This study (N = 129) tested if differences in deception detection accuracy, truth‐bias, judgmental confidences, and self‐reported cue reliance exist between individual judges and groups of individuals working in collaboration. No significant differences between groups and individuals emerged for accuracy, truth‐bias, or self‐reported cue reliance. Individuals within groups, however, were significantly more confident in their decisions than individuals working alone.     

Irony and Language Expectancy Theory: Evaluations of Expectancy Violation Outcomes

Language expectancy theory (LET) provides the basis for a study of the relationship of ironic and literal messages in terms of persuasiveness and expectedness. The experimental design was a 2 (literal vs. ironic) × 2 (compliment vs. criticism) factor design. The expectation was that literal messages would be more expected and criticisms less preferred to compliments. The results indicated that the ironic messages tended to be negative, unexpected, and attributed to the situation as opposed to the sender. Compliments were associated with fewer behavioral intentions than were criticisms. The interaction also revealed that the ironic messages were a safe middle ground between literal criticisms and compliments in terms of fostering behavioral changes.     

A social relations analysis of participation in small groups

Two approaches to explaining the relation between interaction and participator judgments in small groups are examined. The first, expectations states theory, suggests that participator judgments are consistent across raters for a given target, and that such ratings are a function of the heuristic processing of social information. The second approach, the local management model, assumes more thoughtful processing of members' behaviors, leading to uniqueness in how perceivers evaluate targets as participators. A social relations analysis of participator assessments in same- and mixed-sex groups revealed consensus in participator judgments; uniqueness also played a role in how members perceived each other as useful participators. In addition, consensus was correlated with participation, but not with sex. The discussion addresses the necessity and sufficiency of each model as well as the conditions under which each model would better fit the data.     

Some relations between personality,speech characteristics and teaching effectiveness of college teachers

The Fishbein‐Ajzen behavioral‐intentions model separates attitudinal and normative influences on behavioral intent. However, some investigations employing this model have obtained strong correlations between the attitudinal and normative components of that model, whereas others have reported no such result. The issue of the relatedness of attitudinal and normative determinants of intent is important to theorists of social behavior and the many researchers who employ the Fishbein‐Ajzen model, as well as to scholars of persuasion. Relying on constructivist theory and research, this investigation hypothesized that an individual difference variable, construct differentiation, mediates the degree of association persons are likely to exhibit between attitudinal and normative beliefs. Investigating the domain of politics and voting behavior, this study found support for that general hypothesis: persons with relatively undifferentiated political construct systems exhibited substantial collinearity between attitudinal and normative components of the Fishbein‐Ajzen behavioral‐intentions model; persons with relatively developed political construct systems did not.     

Perpetual development journalism? Balance and framing in the 2006 Singapore election coverage

This study sought to determine if Singapore's press model has evolved beyond the development model to take on characteristics of other press models. It examined balance and framing in election coverage in the Straits Times, Singapore's dominant English newspaper, over 16 days before the 2006 Singapore General Election. As expected under the development model, and contrary to expectations under the social responsibility model, we found coverage of the competing parties lacked balance, as indicated by more coverage with a more favorable tone for the ruling People's Action Party. In framing, we found game frames predominated over issue frames, as predicted by media intrusion theory, in which commercial media favor competitive aspects of campaigns as a result of following commercial journalistic values. This finding contradicts the expectation that development journalism would likely have more issue frames, since it emphasizes issues and policies, and suggests that some commercial journalistic imperatives outweigh development model imperatives in the Singapore press.     

公共文化服务的公众获得感测度与提升研究——以辽宁为例

公共文化服务建设从重视供给效率转向更重视公众诉求。文章首次将期望确认理论引入该领域,通过在辽宁的问卷调查,分析公众对公共文化服务的期望与感知绩效,以测度公众的获得感程度。在此基础上,利用结构方程模型探究公众对公共文化服务的期望到感知、到确认、再到获得感的过程路径。研究发现:公众期望与感知绩效之间存在差异,改善基础服务与服务保障类因素有助于提升公众获得感。政府应构建期望-供给型服务模式,推进服务保障,激发公众的参与积极性。     

Tweeting Facts,Facebooking Lives: The Influence of Language Use and Modality on Online Source Credibility

The present study examines how language use (e.g., personalized vs. depersonalized language) and modality (e.g., tweets vs. Facebook status updates) influence source credibility interdependently. A total of 257 participants read personalized or depersonalized health messages embedded in mock-up tweets or Facebook status updates. The results show that users perceive depersonalized tweets as more credible than depersonalized status updates posted on Facebook. On the other hand, personalized status updates on Facebook generate higher credibility judgments than personalized tweets. The findings are discussed in light of the MAIN model as well as the preconceived user expectations and communication norms of social media.     

Ranking of library and information science researchers: Comparison of data sources for correlating citation data,and expert judgments

This paper studies the correlations between peer review and citation indicators when evaluating research quality in library and information science (LIS). Forty-two LIS experts provided judgments on a 5-point scale of the quality of research published by 101 scholars; the median rankings resulting from these judgments were then correlated with h-, g- and H-index values computed using three different sources of citation data: Web of Science (WoS), Scopus and Google Scholar (GS). The two variants of the basic h-index correlated more strongly with peer judgment than did the h-index itself; citation data from Scopus was more strongly correlated with the expert judgments than was data from GS, which in turn was more strongly correlated than data from WoS; correlations from a carefully cleaned version of GS data were little different from those obtained using swiftly gathered GS data; the indices from the citation databases resulted in broadly similar rankings of the LIS academics; GS disadvantaged researchers in bibliometrics compared to the other two citation database while WoS disadvantaged researchers in the more technical aspects of information retrieval; and experts from the UK and other European countries rated UK academics with higher scores than did experts from the USA.