Intensifying the dominant response II: nonconscious negative affect,cognitive demand and conversations

The current studies examine mechanisms that may account for why evaluations made by participants involved in conversations are more influenced by subliminal negative cues than are evaluations made by observers. In Study 1 a subliminal priming task was used to induce a positive, a negative, or no affective response toward a confederate. Participants under either a low or high cognitive load (CL) then evaluated a confederate engaged in a conversation. Evaluations made by high CL participants were most affected by the negative subliminal prime. In Study 2 an alternative CL induction was used and, in addition, we also induced self-presentation (SP) concerns. High SP participants rated confederates more positively, however, SP did not interact with priming. High CL participants again were most affected by the negative subliminal prime. Yet another CL induction was used in Study 3. The results of Study 3 replicate findings from Study 2. Results suggest that people are more susceptible to nonconscious processes when they are cognitively busy, nonconscious negative affect produces stronger effects than positive affect, and the effects of negative nonconscious affect on evaluations of conversations is dependent on the type of cognitive load task.     

Interpersonal deception: VI. Effects of preinteractional and interactional factors on deceiver and observer perceptions of deception success

Past research on deception success has focused on receiver judgments, ignoring deceiver perceptions, which may influence the ways deceivers choose to behave in interpersonal interactions. The present study investigated how several preinteractional and interactional factors affect both deceiver and observer perceptions of deception success. Preinteractional factors included three that have been found relevant to deceptive communication: social skill, self‐monitoring, and motivation. Interactional factors included receiver suspicion, plus four proposed by the four‐factor theory of deception (anxiety, affect, task difficulty, and behavioral control). Results indicated that deceivers’ perceptions of success were more affected by interactional factors (especially anxiety, interaction difficulty, and conversational normality). Conversely, observers were more affected by preinteractional factors such as deceiver social skill. However, motivation, self‐monitoring, and conversational normality affected both deceivers’ and observers’ assessments: greater motivation and self‐monitoring, coupled with more natural, expected communication, yielded greater believability in deceivers’ own eyes and the eyes of observers.     

Pre- and Postinteraction Physical Attractiveness Ratings and Experience-Based Impressions

This study examines the perceptions of an interaction partner’s physical attractiveness and traits in relation to whether and how partners were evaluated prior to interacting. Sixty-five pairs of heterosexual strangers were randomly assigned to one of three conditions (i.e., prerate photos of opposite-sex strangers including conversation partner, prerate photos excluding partner, no prerate photos). Participants then had a 10-minute interaction, reported impressions of partner, and rated photos again including the partner. Compared to no preinteraction rating, rating conversation partners’ attractiveness reduced impressions of partners’ social attractiveness, fun/funniness, and charisma. Partner impressions were more strongly associated with postinteraction attractiveness ratings than preinteraction ratings. Impressions of social attractiveness and fun/funniness moderated attractiveness rating change, wherein less attractive partners showed more positive change than attractive partners.     

Editorial

Drawing on communication accommodation theory in a law enforcement context, young adults rated one of four written vignettes wherein an accommodating or nonaccommodating police officer issued a ticket for a minor or major traffic violation. The officer was rated less favorably along both cognitive and affective dimensions when he nonaccommodated rather than accommodated the offender. The effect of officer accommodation on evaluations of officer competence and social attractiveness were both mediated by intergroup sensitivity. These effects, which supported the theory, emerged irrespective of the severity of the violation. The findings add to the literature regarding the effects of intergroup sensitivity and open up new affective parameters for communication accommodation.     

The protasis of the great awakening in New England

Subjects differing in cognitive complexity formed impressions of another based on positive information about the other's work behavior and negative information about social behavior, or vice versa. Immediate impressions written to one context, and work‐ and social‐evaluation measures, reflected the valence of the information; general evaluative measures tended to neutrality. Impressions (written to the other context) and evaluations obtained two weeks later showed similar results. These results, in conjunction with those of subsidiary analyses involving Fishbein's attitude model, were interpreted as supporting a view of beliefs as substantive cognitions rather than as vacuous elements functioning only to contribute increments of affect.     

Not like me: Self vs. other distinctions in first‐person perception

The third‐person perception hypothesis posits that people believe others are more influenced by media messages than they are. The existing literature consistently documents that individuals make self vs. other distinctions when assessing media effects, but not how such distinctions are made. The current study sought to document the self/ other distinction in third‐person perception and to assess differences in how individuals separate their own personal risk from that of others. Findings of a survey of 180 urban minority youth confirm the presence of third‐person perception and significant self/other distinctions in media effects. A clear split between cognitive and social predictors emerged when assessing differences in self/other distinctions. Participants relied on cognitive factors when assessing their own risk, while relying more heavily on self‐esteem when assessing the relative risk of others. Liking and trust of the media was the only shared correlate of self/other distinctions in third‐person perception.     

Effects of a speech training program upon semantic compatibility

The relationship between one's attitude toward self‐disclosure in interaction and the complexity of his system of dimensions for construing the behavior and character of others was examined within a cognitive‐developmental framework in which development was hypothesized to be a function of the range and intensity of one's social experiences. Significant correlations involving three indices of construct usage reflecting the differentiation and integration of the motivational constructs in a perceiver's cognitive system suggest that it is one's motivational constructs which are elaborated through self‐disclosing interactions and which, in turn, allow for the formation of the kind of subjectivity satisfying impressions that favorably orient one toward the mutual disclosure of self‐attributions.     

Age and sex differences in willingness to communicate,communication apprehension,and self‐perceived competence

Age and sex differences in willingness to communicate (WTC), communication apprehension, and self‐perceived communication competence were examined using three age cohorts of participants drawn from junior high, high school, and university student populations. Results indicate that junior high females are higher in WTC than their male counterparts and females at the university level are higher in communication apprehension and lower in self‐perceived competence than are male university students. Communication apprehension and self‐perceived competence show a consistent negative relationship that does not vary with age or sex in the present sample. The degree to which communication apprehension arid self‐perceived competence predict WTC varies with age and sex. In all three age cohorts, communication apprehension is a significant predictor of WTC among women. Among men, self‐perceived competence emerges as a significant predictor of WTC in all three age groups.     

Patronizing young and elderly adults: Response strategies in a community setting

Within the context of an elaborated model of the communication predicament of aging, the effects of particular response strategies to patronizing, intergenerational talk were investigated with written vignettes depicting a community situation. Young adults (N = 222) evaluated a patronizing speaker more negatively than a non‐patronizing speaker, and they also judged both conversational partners to be more satisfied when patronizing speech was absent. As compared to cooperative responses, assertive responses from the patronizee led to evaluations that she was higher status, more controlling, less nurturing, and less satisfied. Patronizing individuals receiving an assertive response were evaluated as less in control and satisfied than when they received a cooperative response.     

Single,double, and triple minorities and the evaluations of persuasive arguments

The study examines the relationship between positional minorities, social minorities (i.e., African‐Americans and women) and the evaluations of persuasive arguments within the context of hypothetical small groups. Specifically, the study predicted that positional majority arguments would be evaluated most positively when identified with social minorities and that positional minority arguments would be evaluated least positively when identified with social minorities. Results demonstrated that when majority arguments were attributed to an African‐American spokesperson, they were evaluated more favorably than when the spokesperson was European‐American. However, spokesperson race did not influence evaluations of minority arguments. Spokesperson gender also did not influence argument evaluations for either position.     

Shyness and self‐reported competence

This investigation examined levels of shyness on competence. Results indicated that shy individuals, as compared to not‐shy individuals, were less competent. Perceptual differences were found on articulation, social composure, social confirmation, social experience, wit, overall conversational performance, expressiveness, and interaction management. Based on findings, conclusions were drawn and future research suggestions were discussed.     

Introduction

Empathy has been previously treated as a dimension of communication competence. This study indicates that both concepts are essentially composed of the same set of skills and reflected by the same set of behaviors, thus raising a question about the research value of communication competence and empathy. Twenty‐seven conversational sets were evaluated by respondents. One group of respondents evaluated the 27 response statements for the level of reflected communication competence. Another group evaluated the responses for the level of reflected empathy. The ratings were highly correlated (r = .98) thus supporting the hypothesized relationship between communication competence and empathy. Additional tests for reliability and validity were performed to demonstrate the power of the method used in the study.     

Applied communication scholarship: Less a matter of boundaries than of emphases

This study examined whether the sequencing of cognitive, affective, and behavioral components of an intervention designed to help people cope with public speaking anxiety (PSA) made a difference in the effectiveness of the intervention. Since no data were available to posit hypotheses about the effectiveness of treatment sequencing, all treatment sequences were expected to be more effective than no treatment in reducing self‐reported levels of trait and state CA, the proportion of negative to positive thoughts, and behavioral manifestations of speech anxiety. Contrary to expectations, some treatment combinations were not more effective than no treatment in reducing PSA, negative thoughts, and behavioral manifestations of anxiety. In general, treatment combinations that began with a behavioral component were no better than no treatment in reducing these indicators of speech anxiety. However, treatments that began with cognitive or affective components were effective in reducing trait and state CA, negative thoughts, and behavioral manifestations of speech anxiety.     

Loud voice: Immediate effects upon the speaker

While awaiting the arrival of the experimenter, pairs of subjects participated in ten minutes of spontaneous casual interaction. The impression which each formed of the other was assessed. Analyses of these impressions compared subjects differing in initial level of cognitive complexity. High complexity subjects, in comparison with noncomplex subjects, formed more differentiated, more abstract, more highly organized, and less evaluatively polarized interpersonal impressions. These differences, consistent with the results of related research not based on direct social communication, are interpreted as supporting a cognitive‐developmental approach to impression formation.     

An interactionist perspective on dominance‐submission: Interpersonal dominance as a dynamic,situationally contingent social skill

Dominance‐submission in interpersonal interaction typically has been conceptualized as largely a function of either highly stable characteristics of individual actors (e.g., basic termperament, genetic heritage, fixed social roles) or highly dynamic properties of situations (e.g., relational control sequences). Too, the dominance end of the continuum frequently has been infused with negative connotations. Here it is argued that a more balanced and comprehensive perspective is achieved by conceptualizing interpersonal dominance as influenced by a combination of person, situation, and relationship factors and as including positive qualities that also underwrite social competence. Experimental data relevant to this interactionist perspective were examined for the impacts of one traitlike actor variable (self‐reported social skills), two situational factors (communication format and message goal), and one relationship factor (acquaintanceship) on dominance displays during dyadic interactions. Sender and receiver perceptions were also triangulated with observational data from trained coders. Results support an interactionist conceptualization of dominance.     

Source credibility and presidential candidates in 1996: The changing nature of character and empathy evaluations

This study examines the importance of character, competence, empathy, and leadership in evaluations of presidential candidates in 1996. Public opinion research suggests changes in the importance and meaning of character in candidate evaluations. The results of this study strongly support distinctions between character‐generated liking of a candidate and vote choice among respondents in 1996. Results also suggest that perceptions of candidate empathy played a larger role in evaluations than in previous elections. Implications of these findings include the need for renewed political communication research on the importance and conceptualization of character and empathy, and the extension of current theory to explain differences in affective candidate evaluations and vote choice.     

The impact of forms of strategic and non‐strategic voir dire questions on jury verdicts

This paper examined the effects of strategic voir dire questions on juror evaluations of trial participants. The influence of three types of voir dire questions was assessed on ratings of defendant guilt, defendant credibility, and defense attorney credibility. Using both a control group composed of non‐strategic questions and a control group with no voir dire questions, results indicated that the use of strategic voir dire questions influenced decisions and ratings of trial participants. In particular, questions asking jurors to disregard the defendant's unsavory past produced a main effect on perceptions of guilt. Among other effects additionally, the absence of any voir dire questions seemed to affect negatively perceptions of trial participants on the competence dimension. On both the ratings of defendant character and competence, an interaction emerged between the use of questions encouraging jurors to hold the prosecution to its burden of proof and questions urging jurors to overlook the defendant's unsavory background. Though use of the defendant background question enhanced credibility ratings when the burden of proof question was omitted, these effects were suppressed when both question types were used. In addition, a significant main effect revealed that competence was reduced when jurors were exposed to the question encouraging them to resist group pressure to convict. Furthermore, a three‐way interaction indicated that the highest ratings of defendant competence occurred when jurors were not asked any strategic questions except those urging them to overlook the defendant's unsavory background.     

Perceived self-efficacy of library and information science professionals regarding their information retrieval skills

This research investigated self-efficacy perceptions of Israeli library and information science (LIS) professionals regarding their information retrieval skills, examining the judgments that participants make about their own searching abilities. The study was based on Bandura's four sources of self-efficacy information: (a) past performance or mastery experiences; (b) vicarious observation of others' experiences; (c) verbal or social feedback; and, (d) affective states. An online survey presenting the Information Retrieval Self-Efficacy Scale was distributed among three existing Israeli LIS discussion groups. The questionnaire was completed by 201 LIS professionals. Findings show that participants reported a high level of self-efficacy regarding information retrieval and all four sources of self-efficacy information influenced the construction of self-efficacy beliefs. Correlations between self-efficacy perceptions and several socio-demographic variables were investigated. The data analysis revealed that men and women are impacted differently by self-efficacy information; women reported a higher score for affective states and men are more prone to frustration. Also, a significant relation was found between age and years of experience, as well as the sources that exerted more influence on participants. Older and more experienced participants reported being more impacted by their mastery experiences and their affective states. Participants in the middle of their careers reported a greater influence of social feedback on their self-perception of self-efficacy.     

Users’ perceptions of the impact of information provided by a Consumer Health Information service: an in‐depth study of six users

This paper describes the impact of providing six users of the Health Facts Consumer Health Information Centre at Frenchay Hospital with health information. Comments from a previous user satisfaction questionnaire survey implemented by the researcher provided themes to explore. These were: (1) cognitive effects (2) affective effects (3) behavioural effects. Semi‐structured interviews were conducted with six consecutive users of the centre asking about a health problem for themselves. Health Facts information improved knowledge and understanding, reduced anxiety, and helped respondents accept and self‐manage illness, facilitated by quality of content and presentation. Everyone took some subsequent action in support of their condition. The centre saved users’ time searching for information elsewhere and staff were key players providing it. Information was shared with others, extending its impact. Increased publicity for the service was the main suggested improvement. Health Facts information was mostly rated higher than other information sources, and unexpectedly as high as information from doctors. Even well‐informed users gained new understanding. Health Facts information is highly valued, and complements advice given by health professionals. Findings reflect recent literature and government policy to get patients more involved in their own health care. The methodology may help other health information services investigate this subject.