Adolescent elite Kenyan runners are at risk for energy deficiency,menstrual dysfunction and disordered eating

Limited data are available on the female athlete triad (Triad) in athletes from minority groups. We explored subclinical and clinical Triad components amongst adolescent elite Kenyan athletes (n = 61) and non-athletes (n = 49). Participants completed demographic, health, sport and menstrual history questionnaires as well as a 5-day weighed dietary record and exercise log to calculate energy availability (EA). Ultrasound assessed calcaneus bone mineral density (BMD). Eating Disorder Inventory subscales and the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire’s cognitive dietary restraint subscale measured disordered eating (DE). EA was lower in athletes than non-athletes (36.5 ± 4.5 vs. 39.5 ± 5.7 kcal ? kg FFM^?1 ? d^?1, P = 0.003). More athletes were identified with clinical low EA (17.9% vs. 2.2%, OR = 9.5, 95% CI 1.17–77, P = 0.021) and clinical menstrual dysfunction (32.7% vs. 18.3%, χ² = 7.1, P = 0.02). Subclinical (75.4% vs. 71.4%) and clinical DE (4.9% vs. 10.2%, P = 0.56) as well as BMD were similar between athletes and non-athletes. More athletes had two Triad components than non-athletes (8.9% vs. 0%, OR = 0.6, 95% CI 0.5–6.9, P = 0.05). Kenyan adolescent participants presented with one or more subclinical and/or clinical Triad component. It is essential that athletes and their entourage be educated on their energy needs including health and performance consequences of an energy deficiency.     

Self-Narrative Profiles of Elite Athletes and Comparisons on Psychological Well-Being

Further research is needed on factors related to the emotional health of elite athletes. Previous research has linked self-narratives of people or their narrative identities to their psychological well-being. However, no study has yet examined self-narratives among elite athletes. Purpose: This study examined whether specific profiles or narrative identities of athletes emerge through multiple self-narrative indicators; these profiles were compared on measures of psychological well-being (e.g., depression, anxiety, postfailure shame levels, and life satisfaction). Method: Self-report data were collected from a sample of elite athletes (n = 99, Mdn age = 22 years, 52% male, 53% individual sports) competing at a National Collegiate Athletic Association Division 1, professional, or Olympic level. Results: Latent profile analysis revealed 3 profile types that significantly differed on measures of psychological well-being. Athletes with a performance-based narrative identity (high perfectionism, fear of failure, and contingent self-worth) demonstrated the highest levels of psychological disruptions (highest levels of depression, anxiety, and shame; lowest levels of life satisfaction), whereas a purpose-based narrative identity (high purpose, global self-worth, positive view of self after sport) was associated with the highest level of psychological well-being (lowest levels of depression, anxiety, and shame; highest levels of life satisfaction). Athletes in the mixed-type profile class reported better psychological well-being compared with the performance-based profile class but not the purpose-based profile class. Conclusions: Our findings provide initial evidence that particular self-narrative profiles of elite athletes contribute to their own psychological well-being in a significant way. Possible implications for practitioners are also discussed.     

Test-retest reliability and agreement of the SPI-Questionnaire to detect symptoms of digital ischemia in elite volleyball players

The Shoulder posterior circumflex humeral artery Pathology and digital Ischemia – questionnaire (SPI-Q) has been developed to enable periodic surveillance of elite volleyball players, who are at risk for digital ischemia. Prior to implementation, assessing reliability is mandatory. Therefore, the test-retest reliability and agreement of the SPI-Q were evaluated among the population at risk.

A questionnaire survey was performed with a 2-week interval among 65 elite male volleyball players assessing symptoms of cold, pale and blue digits in the dominant hand during or after practice or competition using a 4-point Likert scale (never, sometimes, often and always). Kappa (κ) and percentage of agreement (POA) were calculated for individual symptoms, and to distinguish symptomatic and asymptomatic players. For the individual symptoms, κ ranged from “poor” (0.25) to “good” (0.63), and POA ranged from “moderate” (78%) to “good” (97%). To classify symptomatic players, the SPI-Q showed “good” reliability (κ = 0.83; 95%CI 0.69–0.97) and “good” agreement (POA = 92%). The current study has proven the SPI-Q to be reliable for detecting elite male indoor volleyball players with symptoms of digital ischemia.     

Specific muscle synergies in national elite female ice hockey players in response to unexpected external perturbation

This study aimed to investigate specific muscle synergies in elite ice hockey players indicating highly developed postural control strategies used to restore balance against unexpected external perturbations. Seven elite athletes (EA) on the women’s national ice hockey team and 7 non-athletes (NA) participated in this study. Based on trajectories of centre of mass (COM), analysis periods were divided into an initial phase (a balance disturbance after perturbation onset) and a reversal phase (a balance recovery response), respectively. Muscle synergies were extracted at each phase by using non-negative matrix factorization. k-means cluster analysis was performed to arrange similar muscle synergies in all participants. EA showed significantly shorter recovery period of COM and smaller body sway than NA. In the initial phase, we identified 2 EA-specific synergies related to ankle plantar flexors or neck extensors. In the case of an NA-specific synergy, co-activation of the ankle plantar flexors and dorsiflexors was found. In the reversal phase, no specific muscle synergies were identified. As the results, EA-specific muscle synergies showed low co-activation strategy of agonists and antagonists in ankle and neck extensors. Our results could provide critical information for rehabilitation strategies in athletes requiring high postural stability.     

Prevalence of disordered eating in elite female athletes in team sports in Greece

ABSTRACT

The purpose of the study was to assess (a) the prevalence of disordered eating (DE) in elite female team sports players compared to non-athletes and (b) to compare DE prevalence in elite female players in basketball, volleyball and water polo. One hundred and seventy-five females were recruited (age 23.10?±?5.4, BMI 21.85?±?2.3?kg/m²), 53 were elite basketball players, 42 were elite volleyball players, 34 were elite water polo players and 46 were non-athletes. Participants completed the Eating Disorders Questionnaire (EDE-Q) and a physical activity questionnaire. The EDE-Q incorporates 36 statements which relate to the occurrence and frequency of key behaviours of eating disorders, under the following four subscales: Restraint, eating concern, shape concern and weight concern and a global score of disordered eating. No differences were found in the EDE-Q subscale score and global score between athletes and non-athletes. Only 6.2% of the total number of participants exhibited DE using the global score >2.3. Water polo players had significantly higher scores in the ‘eating concern’ subscale and in the frequency of key behavioural features of DE such as binge eating episodes and objective and subjective bulimic episodes, compared to volleyball and basketball players. In conclusion, team sport elite female players do not exhibit greater prevalence of DE compared to non-athletes. Water polo, a sport that emphasises leanness and control of body weight for international distinctions, is associated with a higher tendency to exhibit DE, when compared to other team sports.     

Correlates of health in adolescent elite athletes and adolescents: A cross-sectional study of 1016 adolescents

The primary aim of this cross-sectional study was to compare subjective correlates of health, such as nutrition, self-esteem, sleep and stress, between adolescent elite athletes (n?=?625) and a reference group of adolescents (n?=?391) not involved in elite sports. A secondary aim was to study predictors for self-perceived stress. A questionnaire was e-mailed to all participants containing valid questions about competence-based self-esteem, nutrition, self-perceived stress and sleep. Our results show that adolescent elite athletes reported significantly (p?p?相似文献   

Resiliency as a factor protecting youths from risky behaviour: Moderating effects of gender and sport

We hypothesised that resiliency may protect adolescents against risky behaviours, and that both the practicing of sports, and gender are moderating variables in relationships between resiliency and risky behaviours. The study included 18-year-old pupils from a selection of secondary schools (n = 556). A total of 188 individuals practiced competitive sports and the remaining 368 participants were non-athletes. The participants were examined with the Resiliency Assessment Scale for Children and Adolescents (SPP-18) and with a survey containing questions and statements related to high-risk “experiments with adulthood”. Adolescent athletes showed higher levels of resiliency than their peers. The power of the “Determination and Persistence in Action” effect on “Alcohol” scale differed significantly between male athletes and male non-athletes. Only in the athletes groups were higher scores on this scale reflected by lower values on the “Drugs” scale. Moreover, it is possible to observe differences in undertaking risky behaviour between male and female athletes. The analysis of risky sexual behaviour suggests that sport is a risk factor for men, and a protective factor for women. These data suggest that consistent prophylactic and psycho-educative activities, with a special attention to differences between genders, should be provided to all the adolescents, irrespective of their sport performance levels.     

Health education assessment practices used by physical education and health teachers in a collaborative action research

ABSTRACT

Background: The school setting is the ideal environment for encouraging students to adopt health-promoting behaviours (Chong, McCuaig and Rossi, 2018, “Primary Physical Education Specialists and their Perceived Role in the Explicit/Implicit Delivery of Health Education.” Curriculum Studies in Health and Physical Education 9 (2): 189–204. doi: 10.1080/25742981.2018.1452163). Schools are actively supporting the implementation of health education (HE) initiatives, and the potential contribution of physical education (PE) to these initiatives is recognised in a number of countries (Gray, MacIsaac and Jess, 2015, “Teaching ‘Health’ in Physical Education in a ‘Healthy’ Way.” Retos 28 (1): 165–172; Haerens, Kirk, Cardon and De Bourdeaudhuij, 2011, “Toward the Development of a Pedagogical Model for Health-Based Physical Education.” Quest 63 (3): 321–338. doi: 10.1080/00336297.2011.10483684). One of the biggest challenges faced by PE teachers is the assessment of student learning in the area of health (Bezeau, 2019, “L’accompagnement d’enseignantes en éducation physique et à la santé visant l’optimisation de leurs pratiques évaluatives en éducation à la santé.” PhD diss., Université de Sherbrooke; Turcotte, Gaudreau, Otis and Desbiens, 2010, “Les pratiques pédagogiques d’éducateurs physiques du primaire en éducation à la santé.” In Éducation à la santé, edited by Claire Isabelle, Louise Sauvé, and Monique Noël-Gaudreault, 717–738. Montréal: Revue des sciences de l’éducation). These challenges highlight the need for professional development that meets the needs of PE teachers in regard to the health component, in particular in terms of assessment practices (Turcotte, 2010, “Problématisation: l’éducation à la santé et l’éducation physique.” In Faire équipe pour une éducation à la santé en milieu scolaire, edited by Johanne Grenier, Joanne Otis, and Gilles Harvey, 25–48. Québec: Presses de l’Université du Québec). However, teachers report that the professional development provided to better integrate health into PE is ineffective (Alfrey, Cale and Webb, 2012, “Physical Education Teachers’ Continuing Professional Development in Health-Related Exercise: A Figurational Analysis.” European Physical Education Review 18 (3): 361–379. doi: 10.1177/1356336X12450797; Makopoulou and Armour, 2011, “Teachers’ Professional Learning in a European Learning Society: the Case of Physical Education.” Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy 16 (4): 417–433. doi: 10.1080/17408989.2010.548060). In order to optimise assessment practices in HE, the development of training methods that answer the real needs of PE teachers constitutes a potential solution to this problem. In this study, two PE teachers were supported in the operationalisation and appropriation of an innovative problem-solving process aimed at optimising their assessment practices in HE.

Objectives: The objectives of this article are to describe: 1) the operationalisation of strategies established by the participants targeting their assessment practices in HE, and 2) the evolution of these practices.

Method: A collaborative action research (CAR) approach was taken, and four methods of data collection were used: 1) individual interviews; 2) group interviews; 3) participant observation, and 4) logbooks. The data was collected over a 12-month period, overlapping two school years, and then analyzed through content analysis.

Findings: Results suggest that, despite the planning and implementation of strategies considered effective by the participants, their assessment practices in the gymnasium progressed very little, while their practices outside the gymnasium evolved considerably.

Conclusion: If we want to optimise assessment practices in HE, or teaching practices in general, we must put aside the question ‘why,’ and focus on ‘how’ to meet the challenges related to the implementation of this type of professional development. Bringing real change to teaching practices is a long process that requires an investment of time and effort from teachers, and starts with the optimisation of practices outside the learning environment.     

Stress in elite sport performers: A comparative study of competitive and organizational stressors

The purpose of this study was to compare the content and quantity of competitive and organizational stressors in elite athletes. Ten international performers were interviewed about sources of stress. Content analysis of the data involved categorizing the demands associated primarily and directly with competitive performance (#CS = 21) under the post hoc dimension “performance issues”, and the demands associated primarily and directly with the sport organization (#OS = 72) under one of the following four post hoc dimensions: “environmental issues”, “personal issues”, “leadership issues” and “team issues”. Frequency analysis revealed that the participants mentioned the competitive stressors (Σ = 95) less than the organizational stressors (Σ = 215). Further analysis within these categories showed that the mean number of participants citing individual competitive stressors (M = 4.52) was greater than the mean number of participants citing individual organizational stressors (M = 2.99). The findings indicate that elite athletes experience and recall more demands associated primarily and directly with the sport organization than with competitive performance. Furthermore, this population appears more likely to mention similar competitive stressors but varied organizational stressors, probably because the former are inherent and endemic to elite sport, whereas the latter are essentially extraneous and widely distributed.     

Does a perceptuomotor skills assessment have added value to detect talent for table tennis in primary school children?

ABSTRACT

Talent detection intends to support lifelong sports participation, reduce dropouts and stimulate sports at the elite level. For this purpose it is important to reveal the specific profile which directs children to the sports that connect to their strengths and preferences. This study evaluated a perceptuomotor skills assessment as part of talent detection for table tennis, a sport in which perceptuomotor skills are considered essential to cope with the difficult technical aspects. Primary school children (n = 121) and gifted young table tennis players (n = 146) were assessed using the Dutch perceptuomotor skills assessment measuring “ball control” and “gross motor function”. A discriminant function analysis confirmed the added value by identifying primary school children fitting the table tennis perceptuomotor profile of the young gifted table tennis players (28%). General linear model analyses for the assessment’s individual test items showed that the table tennis players outperformed their primary school peers on all “ball control” items (P < 0.001). In conclusion, the assessment appears to be of added value for talent detection in table tennis at this young age. Longitudinal studies need to reveal the predictive value for sports participation and elite sports.     

Anthropometric profiles of elite older triathletes in the Ironman Brazil compared with those of young Portuguese triathletes and older Brazilians

The objective of this study was to describe the anthropometric profiles of elite older triathletes participating in the 2009 Ironman Brazil and to compare their somatotype, anthropometric and body composition characteristics with those of elite young triathletes and older non-athletes. The sample consisted of 64 males, divided into three groups: (1) older triathletes (n = 17), (2) young triathletes (n = 24), and (3) older non-athletes (n = 23). Somatotype was analysed according to the Carter and Heath ( 1990 ) method. Body mass index, sum of four skinfolds, percentage body fat, body fat mass, and fat-free mass were also estimated. Older non-athletes had higher endomorphy, sum of four skinfolds, fat percentage, and body fat mass than the athletes. Older athletes who participated in the Ironman and elite young triathletes had higher fat-free mass than older non-athletes. Older triathletes and older non-athletes were considered mainly endomorphic mesomorphs and young triathletes mainly ectomorphic mesomorphs. The findings that characterize the anthropometric profile of athletes in this sports modality could be used as a reference.     

Focusing of visual attention at rest and during physical exercise in soccer players

Abstract

In this study, we investigated the focus of visual attention in expert soccer players together with the effects of acute bouts of physical exercise on performance. In two discriminative reaction time experiments, which were performed both at rest and under submaximal physical workload, visual attention was cued by means of spatial cues of different size followed by compound stimuli with local and global target features. Soccer players were slower than non-athletes in reacting to local compared with global targets, but were faster in switching from local to global attending. Thus, soccer players appear to be less skilled in local attending, but better able than non-athletes to rapidly “zoom out” the focus of attention. Non-athletes generally showed faster performance under physical load, as expected according to the hypothesis of exercise-induced increases in arousal and/or activation and in resource allocation. In contrast, soccer players showed a more differentiated pattern of exercise-induced facilitation that selectively affects specific components of the attentional performance and is interpreted by referring to the role played by individual expertise and cognitive effort.     

Eliteschulen des Sports als Bildungsorganisationen einer Zivilgesellschaft

Based on key questions raised in connection with the function and legitimation of elite sports academies in a civil society, this article initially puts forward a pedagogically reflected suggestion for an elite term, which focuses the rhetorical figure “responsible aesthete” in relation to the institution of competitive sports. In order to form such an elite, elite sports academies must be comprehended as multidimensional educational organizations, the function of which can be summarized under the comprehensive term “triple mission”: to enable peak performance in sport, school qualifications and initiation of a general educational process. In this respect the present empirical results of the assessment on pedagogical quality of elite sports academies will be subsequently discussed. On the basis of the optimization potential revealed here, the implementation is finalized with the formulation of three pedagogical principles. These can be justified by opening orientation perspectives for incentive measures for the younger generation in competitive sports as well as a comprehensive pedagogical program in the sense of a corporate identity for elite sports academies within the framework of a civil society.     

The off-break and “doosra”: Kinematic variations of elite and sub-elite bowlers in creating ball spin in cricket bowling

This study sought to identify kinematic differences in finger-spin bowling actions required to generate variations in ball speed and spin between different playing groups. A 12-camera Vicon system recorded the off-spin bowling actions of six elite and 13 high-performance spin bowlers, and the “doosra” actions of four elite and two high-performance players. Forearm abduction and fixed elbow flexion in the bowling arm were higher for the elite players compared with the high-performance players. The elite bowlers when compared with the high-performance players delivered the off-break at a statistically significant higher velocity (75.1 and 67.1 km/hr respectively) and with a higher level of spin (26.7 and 22.2 rev/s respectively). Large effect sizes were seen between ball rotation, pelvic and shoulder alignment rotations in the transverse plane. Elbow extension was larger for elite bowlers over the period upper arm horizontal to ball release. Compared to the off-break, larger ranges of shoulder horizontal rotation, elbow and wrist extension were evident for the “doosra”. Furthermore, the “doosra” was bowled with a significantly longer stride length and lower ball release height. Although not significantly different, moderate to high effect size differences were recorded for pelvis rotation, elbow extension and elbow rotation ranges of motion.     

Sport activities differentiating match-play improvement in elite youth footballers – a 2-year longitudinal study

This study examined contributions of different types of sport activities to the development of elite youth soccer performance. Match-play performance of 44 German male players was assessed by expert coaches twice, 24 months apart (age 11.1–13.1 years), based on videotaped 5v5 matches. Player pairs were matched by identical age and initial performance at t₁. Each player was assigned to a group of either “Strong” or “Weak Responders” based on a higher or lower subsequent performance improvement at t₂ within each pair (mean Δperformance 29% vs. 7%). A questionnaire recorded current and earlier amounts of organised practice/training and non-organised sporting play, in soccer and other sports, respectively. Group comparison revealed that “Strong Responders” accumulated more non-organised soccer play and organised practice/training in other sports, but not more organised soccer practice/training. Subsequent multivariate analyses (multiple linear regression analyses (MLR)) highlighted that higher resultant match-play performance at t₂ was accounted for R²_adj = 0.65 by performance at t₁, together with more non-organised soccer play and organised engagement in other sports, respectively, and greater current, but less earlier volume of organised soccer. The findings suggest that variable early sporting experience facilitates subsequent soccer performance development in German elite youth footballers.     

The AGTR2 rs11091046 (A>C) polymorphism and power athletic status in top-level Brazilian athletes

The main purpose of this study was to investigate if the rs11091046 (A>C) polymorphism in AGTR2 gene is associated with athletic status in top-level athletes from Brazil. Since the AGTR2 gene is located on the X chromosome, the case-control association study was done separately for women and men. The female cohort was composed of 205 athletes and 241 non-athletes, and the male cohort was composed of 419 athletes and 490 non-athletes. We did not identify an association between the C-allele and the endurance phenotype. However, power athletes had a higher frequency of the A-allele. In women, A/A genotype was overrepresented in international-level power group compared with non-athletes or international-level endurance athletes (23.2% vs. 16.6% or 8.8%, respectively; p < 0.05). In men, the A-allele frequency observed in power athletes or international-level power athletes was statistically different from that observed in non-athletes (51.6% or 57.8% vs. 40.4%; p < 0.009). Furthermore, men sprinters with the A-allele showed significantly faster personal best times for the 100 m than those with the C-allele (10.56 ± 0.32 s vs. 10.93 ± 0.49 s; p < 0.02). In conclusion, it was found that the AGTR2 A-allele is a candidate genetic marker for top-level power athletes.     

The Influence of Response Distortion in Assessing Self-Perceptions of Physical Ability and Attitude Toward Physical Activity

Abstract

Response distortion is an acknowledged concomitant variable in psychometric research. Although the influence of response bias on the Estimation scale of the Physical Estimation and Attraction Scales (PEAS) has previously been considered for adolescent males, experimental evidence concerning the sensitivity of the adult versions of both the Attraction and Estimation scales to “faking” has not been provided. To determine this sensitivity, adult versions of the PEAS were administered to male and female undergraduates (N = 122). Subjects were randomly assigned to one of three groups and received either “fake bad,” “fake good,” or standard instructional sets. Results generally supported the view that the total score on each of the Attraction and Estimation scales is relatively insensitive to attempts to “fake good.” However, attempts to “fake bad” consistently resulted in a significant decrease (p < .01) in both Attraction and Estimation scores as compared to a standard control group. These findings suggest the need for a criterion to detect suspected “fake bad” Attraction and Estimation responses and possibly a “fake good” Attraction response. Statistical procedures for determining test bias indicated that specific PEAS items discriminated between the experimental and control groups, and these items were incorporated into embedded scales for the detection of a distorted PEAS response. Evidence for the predictive validity of these “fake bad” and “fake good” scales was provided.     

Autonomy,eating disorders and elite gymnastics: ethical and conceptual issues

Participation in elite sport, and in particular those sports with special demands in terms of weight and shape, is associated with a higher risk for eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa [Sundgot-Borgen, J., & Torstveit, M. K. (2010). Aspects of disordered eating continuum in elite high intensity sports. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, 20, 112–121]. We report upon research exploring eating attitudes and behaviours within elite gymnastics. The study comprised 42 semi-structured interviews with gymnasts and support staff—34 gymnasts and 9 staff/support staff. The majority of those interviewed were acrobatic gymnasts (22; 16 males and 6 females) with 7 rhythmic gymnasts (all female) and 5 tumblers (all female). The mean age of those gymnasts interviewed was 17.4. A difficulty in precisely delineating extreme eating patterns (disordered eating) from having an eating disorder was noted. Within an elite sports context behaviours thought to be pathological in a more general setting might be fairly commonplace and even functional to the athlete's performance. The extent to which the athlete consents to these patterns of behaviour is problematic given their age and development. We argue that conceptualising consent as ‘authority to be cared for by a trustworthy coach’, more felicitously applies to the child/adolescent elite sporting context, helping us understand not only the focus of the elite gymnast, but also their relationship with the coach and the coaches' responsibilities.     

Increased conditioned pain modulation in athletes

The potential relationship between physical activity and endogenous pain modulatory capacity remains unclear. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to compare the pain modulatory responses of athletes and non-athletes. Conditioned pain modulation (CPM) was assessed in 15 athletes and 15 non-athletes at rest. Participation was restricted to pain-free males between 18 and 40 years of age. To measure CPM capacity, a sequential CPM testing protocol was implemented, whereby a test stimulus (pressure pain threshold [PPT]) was presented before and immediately after a conditioning stimulus (4-min cold-pressor test). Pain intensity ratings were obtained at 15-s intervals throughout the cold-pressor task using a numerical rating scale. Athletes demonstrated higher baseline PPTs compared to non-athletes (P = .03). Athletes also gave lower mean (P < .001) and maximum (P < .001) pain intensity ratings in response to the conditioning stimulus. The conditioning stimulus had a stronger inhibitory effect on the test stimulus in athletes, showing enhanced CPM in athletes compared to non-athletes (P < .05). This finding of enhanced CPM in athletes helps clarify previous mixed findings. Potential implications for exercise performance and injury are discussed.     

An analysis of practice activities and instructional behaviours used by youth soccer coaches during practice: Exploring the link between science and application

Abstract

We examined the practice activities and instructional behaviours employed by 25 youth soccer coaches during 70 different practice sessions. We evaluated the extent to which these activities and behaviours differ from those shown in contemporary research to best facilitate skill acquisition. Nine coaches worked with the under-9 years age group and eight coaches each with the under-13 and under-16 years age groups; nine of those coaches were employed at the elite level, nine at the sub-elite level, and seven at the non-elite level. Coaches had players spend more time in activities that were deemed less relevant to soccer match performance, termed “training form” (e.g. physical training, technique and skills practices), than activities deemed more relevant, termed “playing form” (e.g. small-sided/conditioned games and phase of play activities). Coaches provided high levels of instruction, feedback, and management, irrespective of the activity in which players engaged. Few differences in practice activities and instructional behaviours were reported across skill and age groups, implying the absence of any notable age- or skill-related progression. Findings are discussed with reference to recent research in the areas of skill acquisition, motor learning, and expert performance.