Example-Based Learning in Heuristic Domains: A Cognitive Load Theory Account

One classical instructional effect of cognitive load theory (CLT) is the worked-example effect. Although the vast majority of studies have focused on well-structured and algorithmic sub-domains of mathematics or physics, more recent studies have also analyzed learning with examples from complex domains in which only heuristic solution strategies can be taught (e.g., troubleshooting, mathematical proving). Is learning by such examples also effective, and do the same instructional design principles apply? We discuss the main findings of an own research program and of related studies that addressed such questions. We found that CLT’s basic design principles also hold true for heuristic domains: Reduce extraneous load by employing examples, maximize germane load by fostering self-explanations, prevent cognitive overload by pretraining in the case of difficult learning materials, and by focusing attention on the most relevant aspects. Other typical CLT assumptions (e.g., better provide information for novice learners) were not confirmed in its generality. The present findings extend the applicability of CLT but also identify some potentially too simplistic assumptions.     

认知负荷理论视角下的大学英语移动学习研究综述

随着"互联网+"时代的到来,移动学习已经成为一种新的普遍学习模式。分析大学英语移动学习研究的重要性,回顾国内大学英语移动学习研究的现状,总结了认知负荷理论视角下的大学英语移动学习研究的三大理论基础,即认知负荷理论、移动学习理论、艾宾浩斯遗忘理论,并从移动设备和技术发展以及大学英语移动学习环境两个方面论证了该研究的可行性。     

Cognitive Load and Working Memory in Multimedia Learning: Conceptual and Measurement Issues

This article reviews contemporary research on multimedia learning that uses cognitive load theory as the major theoretical framework. In particular, we address the extent to which working memory has been conceptualized and measured in this research, what kind of subjective measures of cognitive load have been used and whether such measures are combined with other measures of cognitive load, and how results from subjective measures have been related to learning and achievement. The findings show that most of the reviewed studies did not include any clear conceptualization or measurement of working memory, used only general subjective measures containing one or very few items, and did not report findings consistent with the hypothesized relationship between cognitive load and multimedia learning. The findings are discussed in relation to the broader goal of improving research on cognitive load in the context of multimedia learning.     

基于认知负荷理论的数学学优生教学

虽然"因材施教"是教学的一般原则,但是在现实的教学环境中,学优生与普通生同处一个课堂,难以分别接受两种完全不同的教学方案.这时,教师往往只能通过练习环节给予学优生针对性的教学.为此,我们首先从认知负荷理论的角度分析了学优生数学能力优异的内在原因.然后在此基础上讨论了怎样的教学方式适合学优生,怎样的教学方式适合普通生.最后说明教师应如何为学优生设计练习,从而达到因材施教之目的.     

Rethinking the Boundaries of Cognitive Load Theory in Complex Learning

Educational Psychology Review - In the traditional framework of cognitive load theory, it is assumed that the acquisition of domain-specific knowledge structures (or schemas) is the only...     

Cognitive Load Theory and Complex Learning: Recent Developments and Future Directions

Traditionally, Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) has focused on instructional methods to decrease extraneous cognitive load so that available cognitive resources can be fully devoted to learning. This article strengthens the cognitive base of CLT by linking cognitive processes to the processes used by biological evolution. The article discusses recent developments in CLT related to the current view in instructional design that real-life tasks should be the driving force for complex learning. First, the complexity, or intrinsic cognitive load, of such tasks is often high so that new methods are needed to manage cognitive load. Second, complex learning is a lengthy process requiring learners motivational states and levels of expertise development to be taken into account. Third, this perspective requires more advanced methods to measure expertise and cognitive load so that instruction can be flexibly adapted to individual learners needs. Experimental studies are reviewed to illustrate these recent developments. Guidelines for future research are provided.     

The Scientific Value of Cognitive Load Theory: A Research Agenda Based on the Structuralist View of Theories

In this paper, two methodological perspectives are used to elaborate on the value of cognitive load theory (CLT) as a scientific theory. According to the more traditional critical rationalism of Karl Popper, CLT cannot be considered a scientific theory because some of its fundamental assumptions cannot be tested empirically and are thus not falsifiable. According to the structuralist view of theories introduced by Joseph D. Sneed, a theory may be considered scientific even if it comprises nontestable fundamental assumptions. Rather, the scientific value of a theory results from the holistic empirical content of the overall theory net built around fundamental assumptions and from the successful applications of this theory net to explain and predict empirical findings. This latter view is helpful to explicate some implicit methodological assumptions of CLT research and to avoid the potential circularity of CLT’s fundamental assumptions. Additionally, the structuralist view of theories can be directly used to derive a research agenda for the future development of CLT.     

样例学习认知负荷理论的研究及其展望

文章回顾了样例学习研究的起源与发展,主要介绍了其理论依据——认知负荷理论,并分别围绕外在认知负荷、内在认知负荷以及相关认知负荷介绍了最新国内外样例学习的设计方法:材料的整合、子目标、不完整样例、错误样例、诱发自我解释问题、多种解题方法比较等,最后在现有研究成果上指出样例学习研究的发展趋势和有待进一步解决的问题。     

评道德认知发展理论的道德教育观

科尔伯格道德认知发展理论的精髓是他对道德认知发展提出的三水平六阶段的划分和道德教育的设想，该理论强调道德教育要遵循学生的身心发展特点，要重视培养学生理性和独立的道德判断能力，这些都对我国学校德育改革有重要的启示意义。     

双重代码理论及其对英语学习中记忆的作用

记忆在英语学习中的作用不可低估,因此如何提高和利用记忆因素在外语学习中的作用就显得尤其重要.双重代码理论认为,我们在信息过程中利用两种处理模式--言语和非言语系统.从认知信息处理角度出发,利用双重代码理论中意象的编码功能能提高英语学习者的记忆能力,从而促进其在英语教学中的应用.     

A Reconsideration of Cognitive Load Theory

Cognitive load theory has been very influential in educational psychology during the last decade in providing guidelines for instructional design. Whereas numerous empirical studies have used it as a theoretical framework, a closer analysis reveals some fundamental conceptual problems within the theory. Various generalizations of empirical findings become questionable because the theory allows different and contradicting possibilities to explain some empirical results. The article investigates these theoretical problems by analyzing the conceptual distinctions between different kinds of cognitive load. It emphasizes that reduction of cognitive load can sometimes impair learning rather than enhancing it. Cognitive load theory is reconsidered both from the perspective of Vygotski’s concept of the zone of proximal development and from the perspective of research on implicit learning. Task performance and learning are considered as related, but nevertheless fundamentally different processes. Conclusions are drawn for the further development of the theory as well as for empirical research and instructional practice.

Working Memory Underpins Cognitive Development,Learning, and Education

Working memory is the retention of a small amount of information in a readily accessible form. It facilitates planning, comprehension, reasoning, and problem solving. I examine the historical roots and conceptual development of the concept and the theoretical and practical implications of current debates about working memory mechanisms. Then, I explore the nature of cognitive developmental improvements in working memory, the role of working memory in learning, and some potential implications of working memory and its development for the education of children and adults. The use of working memory is quite ubiquitous in human thought, but the best way to improve education using what we know about working memory is still controversial. I hope to provide some directions for research and educational practice.     

Understanding Cognitive Load in Digital and Online Learning: a New Perspective on Extraneous Cognitive Load

Educational Psychology Review - Cognitive load theory has been a major influence for the field of educational psychology. One of the main guidelines of the theory is that extraneous cognitive load...     

另眼看成人教育：基于情境学习理论的人类学解读

人类学对于情境学习理论的解读有着自己的聚焦点,其研究视野超越了学校教育范围,把视线延伸到人们的日常学习与生活背景之中,认为学习即实践共同体中合法的边缘性参与,其中学习者实现了身份的转变和文化吸收与融入的目标。本文以此为分析视角,挖掘其对成人教育的有益启示,并着重从教学内容、教学方法、教学主体三个层面进行阐述。     

Effects of the Physical Environment on Cognitive Load and Learning: Towards a New Model of Cognitive Load

Although the theoretical framework of cognitive load theory has acknowledged a role for the learning environment, the specific characteristics of the physical learning environment that could affect cognitive load have never been considered, neither theoretically nor empirically. In this article, we argue that the physical learning environment, and more specifically its effects on cognitive load, can be regarded as a determinant of the effectiveness of instruction. We present an updated version of the cognitive load model of Paas and Van Merriënboer (Educational Psychology Review, 6:351–371, 1994a), in which the physical learning environment is considered a distinct causal factor that can interact with learner characteristics, learning-task characteristics, or a combination of both. Previous research into effects of the physical learning environment on cognitive performance that could inspire new cognitive load research is discussed, and a future research agenda is sketched.     

Cognitive Load Theory: Advances in Research on Worked Examples, Animations, and Cognitive Load Measurement

The contributions to this special issue document some recent advances of cognitive load theory, and are based on contributions to the Third International Cognitive Load Theory Conference (2009), Heerlen, The Netherlands. The contributions focus on developments in example-based learning, amongst others on the effects of integrating worked examples in cognitive tutoring systems; specify the effects of transience on cognitive load and why segmentation may help counteract these effects in terms of the role of time in working memory load; and discuss the possibilities offered by electroencephalography (EEG) to provide a continuous and objective measure of cognitive load. This article provides a short introduction to the contributions in this issue.     

一种新的学习和记忆理论:联结主义论学习和记忆

在考察以往学习和记忆理论的基础上，论述和分析了联结主学习和记忆理论，其实质是对联结权重的适应性变化。联结主义论的学习典型的权重调整方法为相关学习和误差修正学习；联结主义论的学习体系为监督学习、强化学习和无监督学习三类，而联结主义论记忆的一个重要特征是联想记忆。     

基于认知负荷理论的复杂学习整体任务设计探讨

目前的教学设计趋向于聚焦真实的学习任务,但由于这些任务的复杂性,使学习者的学习受到阻碍。文章基于认知负荷理论介绍了复杂学习任务的设计,并结合认知负荷理论具体探讨了如何通过降低认知负荷来进行复杂学习的整体任务设计。     

Extending Cognitive Load Theory to Incorporate Working Memory Resource Depletion: Evidence from the Spacing Effect

Depletion of limited working memory resources may occur following extensive mental effort resulting in decreased performance compared to conditions requiring less extensive mental effort. This “depletion effect” can be incorporated into cognitive load theory that is concerned with using the properties of human cognitive architecture, especially working memory, when designing instruction. Two experiments were carried out on the spacing effect that occurs when learning that is spaced by temporal gaps between learning episodes is superior to identical, massed learning with no gaps between learning episodes. Using primary school students learning mathematics, it was found that students obtained lower scores on a working memory capacity test (Experiments 1 and 2) and higher ratings of cognitive load (Experiment 2) after massed than after spaced practice. The reduction in working memory capacity may be attributed to working memory resource depletion following the relatively prolonged mental effort associated with massed compared to spaced practice. An expansion of cognitive load theory to incorporate working memory resource depletion along with instructional design implications, including the spacing effect, is discussed.     

Assessing Cognitive Load Theory to Improve Student Learning for Mechanical Engineers

Abstract

A computer programming class for students of mechanical engineering was redesigned and assessed: Cognitive Load Theory was used to redesign the content; online technologies were used to redesign the delivery. Student learning improved and the dropout rate was reduced. This article reports on both attitudinal and objective assessment: comparing student performance on identical final exams and student reviews. Note is made of improved learning by female and other nontraditional engineering students. This article also reports on two additional teaching strategies that were deployed to improve learning.