Scientific Inquiry in Educational Multi-user Virtual Environments

In this paper, we present a review of research into the problems of implementing authentic scientific inquiry curricula in schools and the emerging use of educational Multi-User Virtual Environments (MUVEs) to support interactive scientific inquiry practices. Our analysis of existing literature in this growing area of study reveals three recurrent themes: (1) with careful design and inclusion of virtual inquiry tools, MUVE-based curricula can successfully support real-world inquiry practices based on authentic interactivity with simulated worlds and tools, (2) Educational MUVEs can support inquiry that is equally compelling for girls and boys, and (3) research on student engagement in MUVE-based curricula is uneven. Based on these themes, we suggest that future large-scale research should investigate (1) the extent to which MUVE-based inquiry learning can be a viable substitute for the activities involved in real-world inquiry; (2) the impact of MUVEs on learning and engagement for currently underserved students, and (3) the impact on engagement and learning of individual aspects of MUVE environments, particularly virtual experimentation tools designed to scaffold student inquiry processes and maintain engagement. Additionally, we note that two identified issues with integrating scientific inquiry into the classroom are currently not addressed by MUVE research. We urge researchers to investigate whether (1) MUVE-based curriculum can help teachers meet state and national standards with inquiry curricula; and (2) scientific inquiry curricula embedded in MUVE environments can help teachers learn how to integrate interactive scientific inquiry into their classroom. This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. 0310188. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.     

襄樊市医学中专生上网情形与结果研究

目的研究中专生上网动机对生活、学习与健康的影响规律,以加强对大、中专生上网的管理与引导。方法以整群随机抽样方式对在校某年级医学类中专生进行匿名性问卷调查,然后进行统计分析。结果男女生上网的目的均是以＂娱乐需求＂与＂情感需求＂为主,上网聊天的主要动机是＂游戏消遣＂;男生上网时间与费用高于女生（P〈0.01）,在＂身心疲惫,行为怪异＂（P〈0.01）与＂学习成绩下降、迷恋上网难以自拔＂（P〈0.05）上网不良影响方面高于女生;与网友约会方面,女生没有赴会者（P〈0.01）与见面受到伤害或欺骗者（P〈0.05）显著多于男生。结论应当加强对中专生上网的管理与引导,正确对待互联网的作用,保障中专生的身心健康与正常的学习与生活。     

Work-Plan Heroes: Student Strategies in Lower-Secondary Norwegian Classrooms

This article explores how individualized teaching methods, such as the use of work plans, create new student strategies in Norwegian lower secondary classrooms. Work plans, which are frequently set up as instructional tools in Norwegian classrooms, outline different types of tasks and requirements that the students are supposed to do during a specific period of time, normally two or three weeks. The current analyses shed light on what strategies girls and boys use when they approach work plans. Analyses of video observations and interviews with 93 students indicate that while girls tend to complete their plan during the first week or distribute the tasks evenly throughout the period, boys either finish the plan during the first week or postpone their work until the last few days. These findings suggest that the use of work plans might give some students, often low-achieving boys, too much responsibility for their own learning.     

The microworld of Phoenix Quest: social and cognitive considerations

The present paper explores social and cognitive considerations in the context of a computer-game microworld or learning culture environment. Forty-one boys and 57 girls, aged 8 to 12 years (Grades 4, 5, and 6) were observed playing a computer game called Phoenix Quest. This computer game, featuring an adolescent female protagonist, is an interactive, mystery-adventure with embedded language and mathematics activities. The issues discussed include (a) the development of a computer game learning culture or microworld, (b) interdependence in the process of learning social skills, (c) computer game-playing strategies, (d) gender differences in computer-game play, and (e) mathematics concepts explored in the Phoenix Quest environment. These findings not only contribute to the understanding of how students create and shape a microworld around a computer game like Phoenix Quest, but also indicate some of the inherent teaching and learning limitations of educational software when the guidance of a teacher is absent.     

Gender differences in motivation and strategy use in science: Are girls rote learners?

This study explored Ridley and Novak's (1983) hypothesis that gender differences in science achievement are due to differences in rote and meaningful learning modes. To test this hypothesis, we examined gender differences in fifth- and sixth-grade students' (N = 213) self-reports of confidence, motivation goals (task mastery, ego, and work avoidance), and learning strategies (active and superficial) in whole-class and small-group science lessons. Overall, the results revealed few gender differences. Compared with girls, boys reported greater confidence in their science abilities. Average-achieving girls reported greater use of meaningful learning strategies than did their male counterparts, whereas low-ability boys reported a stronger mastery orientation than did low-ability girls. The results further showed that students report greater confidence and mastery motivation in small-group than whole-class lessons. In contrast, students reported greater work avoidance in whole-class than small-group lessons. In general, the findings provide little support for Ridley and Novak's hypothesis that girls tend to engage in rote-level learning in science classes. Differences in self-reports of motivation and strategy-use patterns were more strongly related to the student's ability level and to the structure of learning activities (small group vs. whole class) than to gender. © 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Gender comparisons of preschoolers' behavior and resource utilization in group problem solving

We tested the hypothesis that 4 - 5-year-old girls and boys in same-sex problem-solving groups would perform equally well when the group task required various cooperative and self-serving behaviors to obtain a resource. The hypothesis that girls and boys would employ different behaviors to obtain the resource was also tested. 20 same-sex, same-age groups of 4 children each (10 groups of girls and 10 groups of boys) were videotaped while solving a problem involving a cartoon movie as a resource. 1 child could view the movie provided 2 other children helped, 1 to turn a crank and 1 to push a light button; the fourth child was relegated to a bystander position. Results revealed that girls and boys were equally effective in achieving viewing time; gender variance in viewing time was significantly greater for girls than for boys; girls and boys did not differ in total behavioral output, but girls tended to use more verbal behavior than boys and boys engaged in significantly more physical behavior than girls; affect in boy groups was more positive than in girl groups; girls who achieved the most viewing time within their group differed behaviorally from girls who achieved the least viewing time, but did not differ behaviorally from boys; boys who achieved the most viewing time did not differ behaviorally from boys who achieved the least viewing time.     

Chinese High-School Students in Physics Classroom as Active, Self-Regulated Learners: Cognitive, Motivational and Environmental Aspects

The present study investigates whether Chinese high-school students are self-regulated learners. A social-cognitive model that distinguishes environmental, motivational, and cognitive components of this active approach to learning is described. This provides an appropriate framework for investigating this complex issue with eighth and tenth graders attending a high-school in Beijing. By contrasting components of self-regulated learning and components indicating a more passive approach to learning that were both measured with self-report instruments, it could be shown that these students may indeed be considered as self-regulated physics learners. Comparisons of the grade levels revealed that tenth graders are not more active in self-regulating their learning processes than are eighth graders, and that they might even experience a motivational decline in learning physics. The same applies to girls versus boys. The physics-related self-efficacy belief of girls turned out to be considerably lower than with boys, a result that corresponds to findings with students from Western nations. Finally, assumptions about the causal role of motivational factors for using self-regulatory strategies could be confirmed. Possible consequences for further fostering self-regulated learning in physics instruction are discussed.     

The affective domain of junior high school students in an audio‐tutorial biology setting

The learning unit, ‘The Cell’, was implemented in a ninth grade junior high school biology course using an individualized audio‐tutorial (IAT) method of instruction. Students’ learning environment their attitudes toward the method and toward science and the understanding of the process of science were investigated. The sample consisted of 105 students in the experimental group and 65 in the control group which was instructed in a traditional lecture‐laboratory method. Data were treated by analysis of covariance and the t‐test results indicate that aspects of the learning environment, such as cooperation and cohesiveness did not diminish in the IAT group, and that factors such as cliqueness, favouritism and competition did not increase. While students expressed favourable attitudes toward some aspects of the IAT method (performing experiments individually, development of independent thinking, self‐examination, rate of learning and self‐achievement), no changes occurred in their attitudes toward science and their understanding the processes of science as a result of being instructed in an IAT setting. Regarding differences between girls and boys, girls expressed more favourable attitudes than boys toward the individualized aspects of the IAT method.     

The Gender Gap and Classroom Interactions: Reality and rhetoric?

This paper examines the gender gap at GCSE in eight contrasting English secondary schools, and discusses the reality and rhetoric of classroom interactions, focusing on the views of teaching staff, the perspectives of Year 11 students, and observations of teacher-student interactions in the classroom. In an earlier paper (British Journal of Sociology of Education, 17 (3)), the authors examined the extent to which there was less positive teacher-support for the learning of boys than for the learning of girls, and this issue is reviewed in differing school contexts. Research in this broader context suggests that most teachers believe that they give equal treatment to girls and to boys, particularly in support of their learning, but focus group interviews with students and classroom observation suggest that this is rarely achieved; in most schools, boys appear to dominate certain classroom interactions, while girls participate more in teacher-student interactions which support learning. If the underachievement of some boys is to be addressed successfully, these patterns of interaction need to be challenged, to enable boys to begin to develop the very learning strategies which many girls employ effectively to enable them to learn.     

Behavioral patterns of students under an individualized learning strategy

The study examines the behavioral patterns of high, average and low achievers in classrooms implementing an individualized instructional strategy. The study makes use of an observational instrument modelled on Medely's Personal Record of school Experiences (PROSE). Seventy-two boys and girls chosen from 12 first, second and third grade classrooms were included in the sample; 1/3 were ranked by the teacher as high achievers, 1/3 as average and 1/3 as low achievers. The findings revealed that students spent about 2/3 of their time on independent work; and the time spent interacting with teacher was about equal to the time spent interacting with classmate.The results also showed that interaction patterns between teacher and individual students are related to the student achievement level. In addition, distinctly different work patterns of independent activity were discerned in high and low achievers indicating higher involvement in on-task activities among high students compared with low achievers. Similiar patterns of interaction between students were found for high, average and low achievers demonstrating either on-task or off-task interaction of a verbal nature among students of the same sex. Implications for teachers, teachers trainers and instructional developers are discussed.     

Humanism and Environmental Education

The author examined the impact of environmental education lessons in a study that compared activities conducted in the schoolyard with traditional classroom activities involving elementary school boys and girls. Participants were 109 4th- and 5th-grade students. Researchers conducted a 2 (group: traditional/treatment) X 2 (gender) multivariate analysis of variance with gain scores for environmental (a) knowledge, (b) attitudes, (c) behaviors, and (d) comfort levels as dependent variables. Boys demonstrated statistically significantly greater gain scores in the outdoor treatment group than in the traditional classroom curriculum for all 4 outcome variables. Boys also scored statistically significantly greater in the treatment group on attitudes and behaviors than did girls in that treatment group. The author discusses the unique learning styles of girls and boys and the findings that indicate the potential for schoolyard lessons to enhance instruction, meeting the needs of boys and girls.     

The Impact of Student Self-efficacy on Scientific Inquiry Skills: An Exploratory Investigation in River City, a Multi-user Virtual Environment

This exploratory study investigated data-gathering behaviors exhibited by 100 seventh-grade students as they participated in a scientific inquiry-based curriculum project delivered by a multi-user virtual environment (MUVE). This research examined the relationship between students’ self-efficacy on entry into the authentic scientific activity and the longitudinal data-gathering behaviors they employed while engaged in that process. Three waves of student behavior data were gathered from a server-side database that recorded all student activity in the MUVE; these data were analyzed using individual growth modeling. The study found that self-efficacy correlated with the number of data-gathering behaviors in which students initially engaged, with high self-efficacy students engaging in more data gathering than students with low self-efficacy. Also, the impact of student self-efficacy on rate of change in data gathering behavior differed by gender. However, by the end of their time in the MUVE, initial student self-efficacy no longer correlated with data gathering behaviors. In addition, students’ level of self-efficacy did not affect how many different sources from which they chose to gather data. These results suggest that embedding science inquiry curricula in novel platforms like a MUVE might act as a catalyst for change in students’ self-efficacy and learning processes.

Gender differences in reading: Examining text-based interest in relation to text characteristics and reading comprehension

Reading is a key competence for knowledge acquisition and learning processes. One important source of reading motivation is interest. Even though students' text-based interest often differs by gender, it remains unclear which text factors underlie these differences and whether text-based interest relates to reading comprehension among boys and girls. In a sample of 514 elementary students (47.2% girls), this study examined whether text topic, protagonists' gender, and text difficulty affect boys' and girls' text-based interest and whether interest and reading comprehension are intertwined. Based on a repeated within-subject design using fourteen narrative texts, the results indicated that boys' interest was higher in texts with male-attributed topics, male protagonists, and in more difficult texts. In contrast, girls’ interest was only affected by text difficulty. Text-based interest and reading comprehension were significantly related, albeit stronger for boys than for girls. The findings are discussed regarding future implications for research and educational practice.     

Interaction and gender — Findings of a microethnographical approach to classroom discourse

The aim of the present study is to reconstruct teacher-student acting to find out whether there are gender-specific methods of managing classroom situations and gender-related patterns of interaction. The findings reveal that over the long run the gender of the participants is immaterial. There are, however, gender-related modifications of the ordinary interaction patterns. They result from gender-specific practices on the part of the students and from the corresponding actions on the part of the teachers. Five types of gender-related modifications have been reconstructed. The methods which enable students to participate successfully in the interaction process have become more common for the boys than for the girls. Therefore the boys appear more mathematically competent than the girls.     

LD status and achievement: confounding variables in the study of children's social status, self-esteem, and behavioral functioning

The purpose of the present study was to examine the role of achievement in explaining the poor social and behavioral functioning associated with LD status, and to evaluate potential gender differences in patterns of interpersonal functioning among youth with learning disabilities (LD) and nondisabled (NLD) youth. Thirty-two students with learning disabilities (21 boys, 11 girls) were matched with same-sex, same-race classmates whose reading achievement was low (LA) or average (AA), and these groups were compared on peer ratings of liking and disliking, perceptions of self-worth and social acceptance, and teacher ratings of conduct problems, anxiety-withdrawal, and attention problems. Students with learning disabilities were less accepted and less well-liked than children in the LA or AA groups and also perceived their self-worth and social acceptance to be lower than LA or AA students. Group by Sex interactions were apparent for several of the peer rating and behavioral variables, indicating that different patterns of social and behavioral functioning distinguished LD boys and LD girls from their NLD peers. The findings highlight the potential role of low achievement in peers' dislike of LD girls and suggest the importance of investigating well-defined subgroups of youth with LD in future research.     

“I just do what the boys tell me”: Exploring small group student interactions in an integrated STEM unit

Gender equity issues remain a challenge in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields, where women are highly underrepresented. As integrated STEM instruction becomes increasingly popular in elementary and middle school classrooms, it is important to consider whether the small group activities that are commonplace in STEM instruction support the equitable participation of young girls. This study builds on the existing body of literature to better understand how gender is related to student participation in small group STEM activities and whether students participate differently in science and engineering activities. A single embedded case study was used to explore the experiences of four students aged 10–11 years as they participated in small group work within an integrated STEM unit in their fifth-grade classroom. Two girls and two boys worked together throughout the unit to explore science content related to electromagnetism and apply their content knowledge to an engineering design challenge. Video and audio of students' small group interactions were analyzed using an observation protocol to code their participation in each 3-min segment of STEM activity. Student- and case-level analyses were used to identify patterns of interaction based on gender and type of activity (science vs. engineering). Findings suggest that boys and girls participate in small group STEM activities in different ways, adopting distinct roles within their group. In addition, students displayed divergent patterns of interaction in science- and engineering-focused lessons, suggesting that students need additional practice and support in navigating between science and engineering in integrated STEM units.     

Achievements and attitudes of tenth‐grade students learning by individual learning methods

Learning achievements and attitudes towards individualized learning in biology of tenth‐grade students in Israel were studied. For this purpose the subject concerned with the blood system was developed in terms of eleven self‐learning subject modules for individualized learning. Of the 557 students who participated in the study, 340 students used the individualized method whilst 214 students learned the same subject by the standard traditional method. The results indicate better achievement by students learning individually, especially average and fast students, and also girls. In the light of the results it is recommended that the individualized method be used especially in heterogeneous classes where the teacher would be free to help the slow students while average and fast students could learn without teacher assistance.     

Grade Level and Gender Differences in the Writing Self-Beliefs of Middle School Students

The objectives of this study were to determine whether middle school students' writing self-efficacy beliefs make an independent contribution to the prediction of their writing competence and to explore grade level and gender differences in writing self-beliefs (N = 742). Writing self-efficacy was the only motivation construct to predict writing competence in a model that included writing self-concept, writing apprehension, perceived value of writing, self-efficacy for self-regulation, previous writing achievement, gender, and grade level. Girls were more competent writers than were boys, but there were no gender differences in writing self-efficacy beliefs. However, when students were asked whether they were better writers than their peers, girls expressed that they were better writers than were other boys or girls in their class or in their school to a greater degree than did the boys. These findings suggest that girls and boys may use a different metric when responding to traditional self-efficacy scales. Students in Grade 6 reported higher self-efficacy and found writing more valuable than did their older peers, and students in Grade 7 reported lower writing self-beliefs than did students in Grades 6 or 8.     

Engagement in self-regulated deep learning of successful immigrant and non-immigrant students in inner city schools

In order to examine and explain differences in self-regulated (SR) deep learning of successful immigrant and non-immigrant students we investigated a population of 650 high track 10th grade students in Amsterdam, of which 39% had an immigrant background. By means of a questionnaire based on the MSLQ of Pintrich and De Groot (1990) the students reported their use of learning and resource management strategies, and their motivational values and attitudes. Two tests measured vocabulary and mathematical reasoning. Background characteristics, grades, track position and school composition (i.e., proportions of immigrant students) were registered as well. A factor analysis yielded two learning patterns: self-regulated deep learning and self-regulated surface learning. Subsequent analyses of variance showed that, compared to boys, girls prefer SR surface learning. However, immigrant girls fit best in the SR deep learning pattem. The contrast between immigrant and non-immigrant girls is substantial. Explanations for this particular group difference, and for variance in SR deep learning in general, were explored. Of the achievement measures, only average grade explains variance in SR deep learning. Motivational values and resource management strategies do so as well. Track position does not, but school composition does affect the way immigrant students learn. Schools with more than 60% immigrant students enhance more SR deep learning than schools with less than 20% immigrant students. As the difference in SR deep learning between immigrant and non-immigrant girls is not explained by any of the covariates, we suggest alternative explanations in the discussion section.     

北京市初中生生涯适应力及生涯需求调查研究

对北京市某中学初中生生涯适应力水平和生涯需求的调查发现,北京市初中生生涯适应力达到中上水平,初二学生的生涯适应力显著高于初一学生,但男女生在生涯适应力各维度上不存在显著差异;有无理想专业对初中生的生涯适应力有显著预测作用.调查样本中,87.70％的初中生认为生涯指导重要,64.30％的初中生希望通过课程的形式开展生涯指...