The relationship between cigarette taxes and child maltreatment

Prior research suggests that income and child maltreatment are related, but questions remain about the specific types of economic factors that affect the risk of maltreatment. The need to understand the role of economics in child welfare is critical, given the significant public health costs of child maltreatment. One factor that has been overlooked is regressive taxation. This study addresses this need by examining whether state-level changes in cigarette tax rates predict changes in state-level child maltreatment rates. The results of both a fixed effects (FE) and a fixed effects instrumental variables (FE-IV) estimator show that increases in state cigarette tax rates are followed by increases in child abuse and neglect. An additional test finds that increases in the sales tax (another tax deemed to be regressive) also predict increases in child maltreatment rates. Taken as a whole, the findings suggest that regressive taxes have a significant effect on the risk of child maltreatment.     

Emotion dysregulation mediates the relationship between child maltreatment and psychopathology: A structural equation model

The present study investigated the mediating effects of emotion dysregulation on the relationship between child maltreatment and psychopathology. An adult sample (N = 701) from diverse backgrounds of psychopathology completed the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ), the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS), the Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI), and the negative affect subscale of the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) in a cross-sectional online survey. Correlational analyses showed that all types of child maltreatment were uniformly associated with emotion dysregulation, and dimensions of emotion dysregulation were strongly related to psychopathology. Limited access to strategies for emotion regulation emerged as the most powerful predictor. Structural equation modeling analyses revealed that emotion dysregulation partially mediated the relationship between child maltreatment and psychopathology, even after controlling for shared variance with negative affect. These findings emphasize the importance of emotion dysregulation as a possible mediating mechanism in the association between child maltreatment and later psychopathology. Additionally, interventions targeting specific emotion regulation strategies may be effective to reduce psychopathology in victims of child maltreatment.     

Social support and child maltreatment: a review of the evidence

Parents who maltreat their children have long been thought to lack support from informal and social networks. Recent writers have taken the position that this relationship is a proven, causal one, with social isolation seen as a necessary antecedent condition for the occurrence of child abuse. Concurrently, initial enthusiasm for social support as a powerful explanatory variable in other areas of psychological and health research is giving way to cautious reevaluation of the evidence. The present review was undertaken to bring into sharper focus what is now known regarding the relationship between child maltreatment and parental isolation from informal helping networks. Existing research is fraught with both conceptual and methodological problems. There is, at present, little research evidence that lack of social support plays a significant role in the etiology of physical abuse. Stronger evidence exists that neglectful parents are socially isolated, but the data are consistent with the hypothesis that this is one manifestation of the character problems of these parents. Future research must give closer attention to clearly defining social support and using reliable and valid instruments to measure it, while exploring multivariate models of child maltreatment.     

The relationship between parental substance abuse and child maltreatment: findings from the Ontario Health Supplement

OBJECTIVE: This study examined the relationship between reported exposure to child abuse and a history of parental substance abuse (alcohol and drugs) in a community sample in Ontario, Canada. METHOD: The sample consisted of 8472 respondents to the Ontario Mental Health Supplement (OHSUP), a comprehensive population survey of mental health. The association of self-reported retrospective childhood physical and sexual abuse and parental histories of drug or alcohol abuse was examined. RESULTS: Rates of physical and sexual abuse were significantly higher, with a more than twofold increased risk among those reporting parental substance abuse histories. The rates were not significantly different between type or severity of abuse. Successively increasing rates of abuse were found for those respondents who reported that their fathers, mothers or both parents had substance abuse problems; this risk was significantly elevated for both parents compared to father only with substance abuse problem. CONCLUSIONS: Parental substance abuse is associated with a more than twofold increase in the risk of exposure to both childhood physical and sexual abuse. While the mechanism for this association remains unclear, agencies involved in child protection or in treatment of parents with substance abuse problems must be cognizant of this relationship and focus on the development of interventions to serve these families.     

Child multi-type maltreatment and associated depression and PTSD symptoms: the role of social support and stress

OBJECTIVE: This retrospective, cross-sectional study explored the hypothesis that multiple forms of child abuse and neglect (child multi-type maltreatment; CMM) would be associated with women's lower social support and higher stress in adulthood, and that this, in turn, would amplify their vulnerability to symptoms of depression and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). METHOD: Participants were 100 women recruited from an inner-city gynecological treatment center for low-income women. Data were analyzed via structural equation modeling (SEM) with Lisrel 8.0. RESULTS: CMM was directly predictive of decreased social support and increased stress in adulthood. CMM was also directly predictive of PTSD symptoms, but not depression symptoms in adulthood. Social support partially mediated the relationship between CMM and adult PTSD symptoms, and stress fully mediated the relationship between CMM and adult symptoms of depression. CONCLUSIONS: Findings support both direct and mediational effects of social resources on adult depression and PTSD symptoms in women with histories of CMM, suggesting that resources are key factors in psychological adjustment of CMM victims.     

Maltreatment's wake: the relationship of maltreatment dimensions to child outcomes

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this exploratory study was to examine the extent to which, in combination, the best constructions of basic dimensions of maltreatment, identified in other papers from LONGSCAN, predict child outcomes. METHOD: Maltreatment records of a sample of 203 children were used to define dimensions of maltreatment related to Type, Severity, Chronicity, and Age at First Report. The definitions were based upon findings presented in other papers in this special issue. Children's behavioral and emotional functioning was examined at age 8 using standardized measures of problem behaviors, socialization and adaptation, and trauma symptomatology. Backward elimination regression was used to screen for interactions among the dimensions; regression models including dimensions and significant interactions were then run for each child outcome. Stratified partial correlations were utilized to explicate significant interactions. RESULTS: Individual maltreatment dimensions were found to have distinct effects on child functioning. Additionally, dimensions of maltreatment were interrelated and interacted in determining outcomes. Type of maltreatment (as indicated by the maximum severity rating of each type) was the most consistent predictor across outcomes, albeit different types predicted different outcomes. Various dimensional interactions were significant predictors of different outcomes. CONCLUSION: The results suggest that a comprehensive assessment of a child's maltreatment experience, including type and severity, when the maltreatment began and the pattern of maltreatment across the life span, is important to understanding the effects of maltreatment on children's growth and development.     

Reflective function mediates the relationship between emotional maltreatment and borderline pathology in adolescents: A preliminary investigation

Deficits in mentalizing, particularly within the context of attachment relationships i.e., reflective function (RF), are posited to result from childhood maltreatment and to influence the development of borderline personality disorder (BPD). Whilst a mentalization-based model of BPD provides a theoretical explanation, direct empirical support for this model, in linking childhood maltreatment to borderline pathology remains limited. This study examined the interrrelationships between childhood maltreatment, RF, and borderline pathology in a mixed adolescent sample, consisting of adolescents with BPD (n = 26) and a group of non-clinical adolescents (n = 25). With the aim of directly testing the mentalization-based model of BPD, we additionally investigated the influence of each form of childhood maltreatment within this developmental pathway. Self-report data supported the hypothesized indirect effect of childhood maltreatment on elevated borderline pathology through lowered RF in adolescents. Both emotional abuse and emotional neglect were found to indirectly influence borderline pathology through adolescent RF, however, only emotional abuse indirectly influenced borderline pathology through RF, after all other maltreatment types were controlled for. Findings support the promotion of mentalization, within attachment-related contexts, as an intervention target for adolescents with borderline pathology and as a potential target of prevention for at-risk children and adolescents with histories of childhood maltreatment, especially emotional abuse. Future research should delineate other underlying mechanisms, independent of RF, which may also link the influence of childhood maltreatment, and in particular, emotional abuse, to BPD.     

The role of attachment in the relationship between child maltreatment and later emotional and behavioral functioning

The experience of childhood maltreatment is an important predictor of unfavorable emotional and behavioral outcomes. Because little research examined explanatory variables in the relationship between childhood maltreatment experiences and later outcomes, this study examined the role that attachment serves in this relationship. Four hundred twenty-four participants completed questionnaires assessing the variables of interest for this study. Results indicated that both childhood maltreatment experiences (particularly emotional abuse) and attachment (particularly to mothers and peers) are significant predictors of later emotional and behavioral outcomes. Further, attachment contributed unique and significant variance to the relationship between childhood maltreatment experiences and later outcomes. Such findings suggested that secure attachment may serve as a protective factor against maladaptive emotional and behavioral outcomes as children reach emerging adulthood, even in the context of childhood maltreatment experiences. The importance of studying the relationships among these variables is discussed.     

Evidence for a relationship between child maltreatment and absenteeism among high-school students in Sweden

School absenteeism is a potent predictor of academic failure. Maltreated adolescents have been found to be more absent from school compared to their peers. However, it is scarcely studied in what degree a general population of students with high levels of school absenteeism has been exposed to child maltreatment. Furthermore, it is not known if maltreated school-absentees have specific characteristics compared to not-maltreated absentees. In this article, the first objective was to present and compare the prevalence of six types of child maltreatment in a general population of high school students reporting no, moderate or excessive absenteeism. The second objective was to compare maltreated and not-maltreated students who report absenteeism in respect to mental health, perceived school environment and peer victimization in school. Data from 667 girls and 649 boys (mean age 14.3) was used from the longitudinal multidisciplinary research program LoRDIA (Longitudinal Research on Development In Adolescence). Data was collected via self-report questionnaires in classroom settings. All six types of child maltreatment were overrepresented among absentees. Roughly 25% of absentees reported one subtype of maltreatment (16% in the total population) and a mean of 22% of absentees reported two or more types of maltreatment (11% in the total population). Maltreated absentees reported more mental health problems, personal harassment and worse relationship with their teachers than not-maltreated absentees. There might be specific correlates of school absenteeism among maltreated adolescents and professionals involved in preventing school-absenteeism should be made aware of the relationship between maltreatment and absenteeism.     

The relationship between attitudes toward corporal punishment and the perception and reporting of child maltreatment.

OBJECTIVE: This study examined the effect of workers' attitudes toward corporal punishment on the workers' perception and reporting of child maltreatment. Three hundred twenty-five (325) potential entry level workers participated in this study. METHOD: Responding to vignettes in multi-item scales, study participants 1) rated their approval of parental discipline involving corporal punishment; 2) rated the seriousness of incidents of probable maltreatment; and 3) indicated whether or not they would report the incidents of maltreatment to child protective services. Data were analyzed using correlation analyses and multiple regression procedures. RESULTS: 1) Respondents with higher scores for approval of corporal punishment were less likely to perceive maltreatment; 2) respondents with higher scores for approval of corporal punishment were less likely to report maltreatment; 3) the likelihood that a respondent would report maltreatment was a joint function of the respondent's perception of the seriousness of an incident and approval of corporal punishment. CONCLUSION: Attitudes about corporal punishment are important predictors of reporting behavior. Social service agencies face a challenge to provide workers with training which will enable them to detect and report maltreatment despite workers' individual beliefs about discipline and punishment.     

Association of child maltreatment and depressive symptoms among Puerto Rican youth

This article compares multiple types of child maltreatment among Puerto Rican youth. We seek to expand the limited knowledge of the effects of multiple types of maltreatment on depressive symptoms in a specific Latino population as emerging studies indicate that children who are exposed to one type of maltreatment are often exposed to other types. This study examines the predictive strength of different and multiple types of lifetime child maltreatment (i.e., physical, sexual, and emotional abuse; and neglect), and the effect of youth support from parents, youth coping, youth self-esteem, and place of residence on depressive symptoms among Puerto Rican youth. Secondary data analyses were performed using three annual waves (2000–2004) of data from the Boricua Youth Study. The analytic sample consists of 1041 10–13 year old Puerto Rican youth living in New York and Puerto Rico. Results indicate that: (1) youth who experienced ‘sexual abuse only’, ‘multiple maltreatment’ (2 or more types of maltreatment), ‘physical abuse only’ have a significant increase in depressive symptoms (75.1%, 61.6%, and 40.5% respectively) compared to those without maltreatment; and (2) place of residence, exposure to violence, and mental disorders were significant risk factors. When developing psychosocial interventions, professionals should particularly focus on youth who report past lifetime experience with child maltreatment. Particular attention should be given to children living in the Bronx, New York and similar urban low-income areas who report past lifetime experience with multiple types of child maltreatment and who present symptoms or a diagnosis of co-occurring mental health problems.     

Effects of academic performance on the relationship between child maltreatment and deviant behavior: A national study in Taiwan

BackgroundChild maltreatment has been found to significantly increase the risk of deviant behavior. Academic performance has been shown to have an indirect effect on the relationship between child maltreatment and deviant behavior. However, not all adolescents who have been maltreated engage in deviant behavior, so the relationship between child maltreatment and deviant behavior has remained unclear.ObjectiveThe aim of this research was to examine the potential mediating and/or moderating effects of academic performance on the relationship between child maltreatment and deviant behavior.Participants and settingThe data in this study were from a nationwide study examining the consequences of childhood maltreatment in Taiwan. The database consisted of data from 2321 adolescents.MethodsA secondary data analysis was conducted. Self-report data were obtained on childhood maltreatment experiences, academic performance, and deviant behaviors. Path analyses and a generalized linear model were used to examine the effects of academic performance on the relationship between child maltreatment and deviant behavior.ResultsMost participants were male (61.4%), with a mean age of 15.9 years. The mean scores of self-rated academic performance and deviant behavior were 2.86 and 8.2, respectively. A total of 83% participants reported having experienced childhood maltreatment. In this study, academic performance was found to have a moderating rather than a mediating effect on the relationship between child maltreatment and deviant behavior. Among adolescents who had been maltreated during childhood, those who self-rated poorer academic performance were more likely to have a higher deviant behavior score than those who self-rated better academic performance.ConclusionsGood academic performance can be a buffer that reduces the risk of deviant behavior among individuals with a history of childhood maltreatment. Healthcare professionals and educators can tailor early prevention and intervention educational programs targeted toward adolescents with experience of childhood abuse or poor academic performance to prevent the incidence of deviant behavior and thus break the cycle of violence.     

The child protection and juvenile justice nexus in Australia: A longitudinal examination of the relationship between maltreatment and offending

There is convincing evidence that many young people who are in the justice system have had contact with child protection services and that victims of childhood maltreatment are at increased risk of subsequent youth justice involvement. In Australia, however, there have been few longitudinal studies that have examined these associations and relatively less is known in this area. This study examines the overlap between the child protection and youth justice involvement in South Australia, and determines how substantiated maltreatment and variations in these experiences (e.g., the type, timing and recurrence of maltreatment) relate to criminal convictions as a youth. The results show that although the majority of child-protection involved youth do not become convicted offenders, the odds of subsequent convictions are significantly greater both for those with notifications and substantiated maltreatment and for those who had been placed in out-of-home care. Multivariate analyses revealed that the strongest predictors for receiving a conviction among maltreated youth were: male gender, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander ethnicity, experiences of physical abuse and emotional abuse, a greater number of substantiations (recurrence), experiencing maltreatment that commenced in childhood and continued into adolescence, and placement in out-of-home care. The mechanisms through which maltreatment might be linked with behavior are then considered, along with directions for future research in this area.     

Accumulating evidence for parent-child interaction therapy in the prevention of child maltreatment

In a randomized controlled trial, the effectiveness of Parent-Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) and correlates of maltreatment outcomes were examined. Mothers (N = 150) had a history or were at high risk of maltreating their children. After 12 weeks and compared to waitlist, PCIT mothers were observed to have improved parent-child interactions and reported better child behavior and decreased stress. At PCIT completion, improvements continued and mothers reported less child abuse potential and had improved maternal sensitivity. Also, PCIT completers were less likely to be notified to child welfare than noncompleters. Finally, those families not notified post-PCIT showed greater reductions in child abuse potential and improvements in observed sensitivity during treatment. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.     

Transitions and turning points: examining the links between child maltreatment and juvenile offending

OBJECTIVE: The links between child maltreatment and juvenile offending are well established. However, the majority of maltreated children do not offend. The research presented in this paper examines the impact that timing and chronicity of child maltreatment have on juvenile offending. METHODS: Administrative data were obtained on all children who were born in Queensland, Australia in 1983 or 1984 and had contact with child protective services for at least one child protection matter (N=5,849). For these children information was obtained on all child protection and juvenile justice contacts until the age of 17. These data were analyzed using the Semi-Parametric Group-Based trajectory analyses [Nagin, D., & Land, L. (1993). Age, criminal careers, and population heterogeneity: Specification and estimation of a nonparametric mixed Poisson model. Criminology, 31, 327-362]. RESULTS: Six distinctive maltreatment trajectory groups were identified, distinguished by the frequency of victimization, the age of onset and the duration of the maltreatment. Child maltreatment peaked around the transition from preschool to primary school and the transition from primary school to secondary school. Furthermore, children whose maltreatment trajectory started or extended into adolescence were more likely to offend as juveniles than children whose maltreatment occurred prior to, but not during, adolescence. CONCLUSIONS: Trajectory analysis provides a useful analytical tool for understanding heterogeneous nature of child maltreatment and the impact of maltreatment on subsequent juvenile offending.     

Girls in residential care: From child maltreatment to trauma-related symptoms in emerging adulthood

The current study examined the association between child maltreatment and trauma-related symptoms in emerging adulthood – over and above the incidence of such symptoms and conduct problems during adolescence – among a sample of female adolescents in residential care. This study used data from a longitudinal study. The sample was composed of 89 adolescent females who were first interviewed at time of admission in a residential center (M_age = 15.33 years, SD = 1.31) and later in young adulthood (M_age = 19.27, SD = 1.55). At time 1, trauma-related symptoms were assessed with the Trauma Symptom Checklist for Children and conduct problems with a composite measure. At time 2, child maltreatment was assessed retrospectively with the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire, and trauma-related symptoms were reassessed with the Trauma Symptom Inventory-2. Results indicated that child maltreatment, especially emotional abuse and neglect, was related to anxious arousal, depression, and anger in emerging adulthood. This study showed that females from our sample often reported different types of maltreatment during childhood and that these traumatic experiences were significantly associated with poor adult psychological functioning.     

Community interaction and child maltreatment

The way in which parents interact with their environment may have implications for their likelihood of abuse and neglect. This study examines the parent–environment relationship through community involvement and perception, using social disorganization theory. We hypothesize mothers who participate in their communities and have positive perceptions of them may be less likely to maltreat their children because of the potential protective capacity of neighborhood supports. Using information from the 5 year Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (n = 2991), the mother's self-reported acts of psychological and physical maltreatment and neglect are measured. A mother's community involvement index is the number of community activities a mother was involved in, and community perception is measured by two five-item Likert scales assessing perception of community collective efficacy. We analyze the relationship between community variables and each of mother's maltreatment behaviors as well as the interaction between community factors using a series of nested logistic regressions. Higher levels of community involvement are associated with lower levels of psychological aggression. More positive perception of community social control is associated with lower levels of physical assault. A moderation effect of community perception suggests that a mother's perception of her community changes the relationship between community involvement and psychological child abuse. The results provide important policy and empirical implications to build positive and supportive communities as a protective factor in child maltreatment. Getting parents involved in their communities can improve the environment in which children and families develop, and decrease the likelihood that maltreatment will occur.     

Neighborhoods and child maltreatment: a multi-level study

OBJECTIVE: To better understand how neighborhood and individual factors are related to child maltreatment. METHOD: Using an ecological framework, a multi-level model (Hierarchical Linear Modeling) was used to analyze neighborhood structural conditions and individual risk factors for child abuse and neglect. Parents (n = 400) of children under the age of 18 were systematically selected from 20 randomly selected census-defined block groups with different risk profiles for child maltreatment report rates. Parents were administered the Neighborhood Environment for Children Rating Scales, the Child Abuse Potential Inventory, the Zimet measure of social support, and the Conflict Tactics Scales as a measure of childhood experience with violence. RESULTS: Neighborhood factors of impoverishment and child care burden significantly affect child abuse potential after controlling for individual risk factors. However, neighborhood effects are weaker than they appear to be in aggregate studies of official child maltreatment reports. Variation in child abuse potential within neighborhoods is greater than between neighborhoods. However, adverse neighborhood conditions weakend the effects of known individual risk and protective factors, such as violence in the family of origin. CONCLUSIONS: If individual potential for child maltreatment is more evenly distributed across neighborhoods than reported maltreatment, then neighborhood and community play an important, if as yet unspecified, role in child maltreatment. Multi-level models are a promising research strategy for disentangling the complex interactions of individual and contextual factors in child maltreatment.