Stop Counting the Books! IMC is Here

Students with mild disabilities have a difficult time recording notes from lectures. Accurate note taking is important because it helps students understand the content from lectures and notes serve as a document for later review. In this article, the author describes what teachers can do before, during, and after the lecture to help students become better note takers.     

Note-Taking Interventions for College Students: A Synthesis and Meta-Analysis of the Literature

ABSTRACT

Although note taking is frequently described as an important skill for postsecondary success, there have been few note-taking intervention studies involving multiple sessions spanning more than one week. In a systematic search, we identified seven peer-reviewed articles reporting 10 intervention studies published from 1990–2014. The only single-case design study addressed taking notes from texts, but four treatment-comparison studies that taught note taking during lectures assessed students' abilities when taking notes from texts. The remaining four treatment-comparison and one single-group design studies focused solely on note taking during lectures. Three types of notes were represented in the corpus: guided (seven studies), split-page (two studies), and self-restructured (one study). In comparing students who did and did not receive note-taking instruction, Hedges's g effect sizes on outcome measures of content learning and note quality ranged from ?0.35 to 2.11. Across nine group design studies, the weighted average effect was 0.54 (CI₉₅ = 0.47 to 0.62). The weighted average Tau-U of the single-case design was 1.00 (CI₉₅ = 0.60 to 1.40).     

Exploring metacognitive strategy use during note-taking for students with learning disabilities

This mixed-methods study analysed over 200 interviews from 20 seventh-grade students with learning disabilities (LD). Students were instructed how to use a note-taking intervention during science lectures. The interview analyses were supported by pre- and post-intervention quantitative data. Data suggest that the intervention helped students identify important information; systematised the process of listening to, interpreting and using that information; and offered students a means by which to organise the information they were hearing. A discussion about metacognition and attention explores how these processes altered students’ awareness of their own learning, as well as how they equipped students with a new strategy for holding onto and translating information from their science lectures into a useful set of notes. These findings have implications for how theorists conceptualise the relationship between metacognition and attention and how teachers use scaffolding to support the learning of students with LD.     

How college science students engage in note‐taking strategies

A composite theory of college science student note‐taking strategies was derived from a periodic series of five interviews with 23 students and with other variables, including original and final versions of notes analyzed during a semester‐long genetics course. This evolving composite theory was later compared with Van Meter, Yokoi, and Pressley's (Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 323–338, 1994) corresponding composite “college students' theory of note‐taking.” Students' notes in this long‐term study were also compared with a standard of “adequate” note‐taking established by experts. Analyses detected many similarities between the two composite theories. Analyses also provided evidence of inadequate note‐taking strategies, inconsistencies between what students claimed and evidently did with their notes, and weak self‐regulating learning strategies. Recommendations included prompting students during class on how to take notes. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 43: 786–818, 2006     

Cognitive Aspects of Autonomous Note Taking: Control Processes,Learning Strategies,and Prior Knowledge

Note taking from lectures or from text is an autonomous activity that transverses many academic areas. Unfortunately, research has failed to address adequately the role that the learner plays when taking or reviewing notes. Note-taking research has largely focused on stimulus and outcome variables but has minimally explored how the cognitive capabilities and activities of the learner affect note taking. This article reviews literature that suggests how cognitive variables such as control processes, learning strategies, and prior knowledge affect (or may affect) note taking. In addition, it offers a research model for investigating the cognitive aspects of autonomous note taking.     

The Old Man and the Sea: Navigating the Gulf between Special Educators and the Content Area Classroom

The special educator in the content area classroom often experiences an ill‐defined role, which can translate into marginalization within instructional settings. Indeed, most students with learning disabilities (LD) receive content area instruction from a general education teacher with the support of a special educator. However, the literacy demands of the respective content areas often present content specific challenges for students with language‐based disabilities and their teachers. To date, proposed content area literacy interventions have not addressed the specific language‐based needs of students with LD. In this article, we highlight the similarities among history, science, English language arts, and mathematics texts from a language perspective, and present strategies specifically targeting students’ background knowledge. We also provide recommendations to researchers and practitioners for improving content area learning.     

The Influence of Critical Reading Orientation on External Strategy Use during Expository Text Reading

This study examined the influence of critical reading orientation on use of external strategies such as note‐taking and underlining while reading an expository text. In two experiments, undergraduate students were asked either to review an article on a linguistic policy (critical reading) or to summarise it (less‐critical reading). Experiment 1 indicated that, when permitted to do so, the majority of students used note‐taking and/or underlining strategies for critical reading as well as for less‐critical reading. In Experiment 2, an analysis of think‐aloud protocols, notes, and underlines revealed that critical readers produced more critical notes/underlines and fewer summary notes than did less‐critical readers. Also, critical readers substantially increased their production of critical notes/underlines over the course of reading and decreased highlightings, whereas less‐critical readers increased summary notes and decreased highlightings.     

Common Core State Standards,Writing, and Students with LD: Recommendations

This article examines the Common Core State Standards as they apply to writing and students with learning disabilities (LD). We first consider why the implementation of these standards is advantageous to writing instruction for students with LD as well as the challenges in implementing them. Next, we make the following four recommendations in terms of their implementation: (1) increase general and special education teachers’ knowledge about writing development; (2) create a writing environment in which students with LD can thrive; (3) employ evidence‐based writing practices in general education classes (where most students with LD are taught); and (4) use evidence‐based writing practices effective with students with LD. We conclude by considering research that still needs to be undertaken to help educators maximize the probability that students with and without LD meet the writing benchmarks proposed in these Standards.     

Laptop versus longhand note taking: effects on lecture notes and achievement

There has been a shift in college classrooms from students recording lecture notes using a longhand pencil-paper medium to using laptops. The present study investigated whether note-taking medium (laptop, longhand) influenced note taking and achievement when notes were recorded but not reviewed (note taking’s process function) and when notes were recorded and reviewed (note taking’s product function). One unique aspect of the study was determining how laptop and longhand note taking influence the recording of lecture images in notes and image-related achievement. Note-taking results showed that laptop note takers recorded more notes (idea units and words) and more verbatim lecture strings than did longhand note takers who, in turn, recorded more visual notes (signals and images) than did laptop note takers. Achievement results showed that when taking laptop notes, the process function of note taking was more beneficial than the product function of note taking (i.e., better image-related learning and similar text-related learning). When taking longhand notes, the product function of note taking was more beneficial than the process function of note taking (i.e., better text-related learning and similar image-related learning). Achievement findings suggest that the optimal note-taking medium depends on the nature of the lecture and whether notes are reviewed.     

Is attending lectures still relevant in engineering education?

A case study was conducted on a group of undergraduate chemical engineering students to assess the relevance of attending lectures from a student perspective and to understand why these students attend and do not attend lectures with a view to developing approaches to teaching, which are of greater interest and benefit to student learning. The students were surveyed by means of a questionnaire-type survey, which collected both quantitative and qualitative data from them. The majority of students stated that lectures are still very beneficial to their learning and are not an out-of-date mode of education. The major reasons for lecture non-attendance were time priority and curriculum overload issues with other scholarly activities and poor quality teaching. The students provided a number of suggestions to improve lectures and lecture attendance, including the incorporation of active learning in lectures, linking lectures to assessment and adding extra value to what is already in the notes.     

Ensuring Content‐Area Learning by Secondary Students with Learning Disabilities

Three factors tied with secondary student success in content‐area reading are demonstrated: (a) validated teacher‐focused and student‐focused interventions, (b) integrated and comprehensive service delivery systems, and (c) well‐designed, data‐based professional developmental programs. Difficult challenges face secondary students with LD and their teachers with regard to these students’ participation and success in required general education classes. Recently, instructional methods and materials have been developed and validated for promoting these students’ success. Some of them focus on how general education teachers plan and teach their content‐area courses; others focus on giving students the strategies they need to respond independently to the demands of their courses. This article describes these instructional methods, a service‐delivery model for implementing these interventions in secondary schools, and professional‐development mechanisms and administrative support that must be in place for the model to be maintained effectively.     

Learning Experience and Learning Effectiveness in Undergraduate Statistics: Modeling Performance in Traditional and Flexible Learning Environments*

This project investigates the relationship between student performance, past mathematics experience, and perceptions of statistics education for two groups of university students studying statistics in different learning environments. One group received the traditional form of teaching with lectures, whereas the other group studied in a more flexible learning mode where lectures were replaced with a computer‐managed learning tool and optional small‐group workshops facilitated by written lecture notes. The results on student learning experience show that, for both groups, student enjoyment of the course is positively related to their learning attitudes and to their perceived value of statistics education, and is negatively related to anxiety with regard to their performance in the course. There is some evidence that the group studying in the technology‐supported flexible learning environment experienced more assessment anxiety and consequently less enjoyment of the subject. There is also evidence that assessment anxiety has a negative effect on student performance that is exacerbated by a lack of prior mathematics experience. Hence, the flexible learning approach in statistics education, with minimal face‐to‐face teaching, may be especially inappropriate for these students.     

Effects of primer podcasts on stimulating learning from lectures: How do students engage?

A number of factors can influence learning from lectures such as students' prior knowledge, their motivation, the instructional design, the lecturer and so forth. Instructional aid techniques such as preparing class notes, giving quizzes (either planned or spot quizzes) and the like can be used to maximise learning. This study uses two well‐documented tools for learning from text—advance organisers and higher order questions—adapted for use with podcasts. Student evaluations of their experience of being primed for lectures with podcasts are described. The findings show that audio advance organisers and questions experienced by students have a positive influence on learning, because they help students bridge the conceptual distance between new and prior knowledge, better understand the topics in the lectures and stimulate thinking more deeply about the lecture's content and the possible applications of the subject of the lecture.     

Using Number Lines to Solve Math Word Problems: A Strategy for Students with Learning Disabilities

Students with learning disabilities (LD) consistently struggle with word problem solving in mathematics classes. This difficulty has made curricular, state, and national tests particularly stressful, as word problem solving has become a predominant feature of such student performance assessments. Research suggests that students with LD perform poorly on word problem‐solving items due primarily to deficits in problem representation. Therefore, it is imperative that teachers provide these students with supplemental problem‐solving instruction that specifically targets the development of representational strategies. This article describes how one representational strategy, using number lines, can be used to model word problems as part of a comprehensive problem‐solving intervention to improve the conceptual understanding of math word problems and, subsequently, the problem‐solving performance of students with LD.     

Combined Effects of Note‐Taking/‐Reviewing on Learning and the Enhancement through Interventions: A meta‐analytic review

Meta‐analyses of 33 studies were conducted to examine (1) how much the combination of taking and reviewing notes contributes to school learning, and (2) whether interventions in the note‐taking/‐reviewing procedure enhance note‐taking/‐reviewing effects, and if so, how much and under what conditions. Syntheses of findings from note‐taking/‐reviewing versus no note‐taking/‐reviewing comparison studies indicated that the overall effects of note‐taking/‐reviewing were substantial. The advantage of note‐taking with intervention over without intervention was modest but significantly greater than zero. This intervention effect was moderated by two variables: presence of provided notes and academic level of participants. Providing a framework or instructor's notes was more effective in the enhancement of note‐taking/‐reviewing effects than pre‐training or verbal instruction only. The participants at lower academic levels gained greater benefits from interventions compared with the participants at a higher academic level.     

The Test‐Taking Strategy Intervention for College Students with Learning Disabilities

Limited research exists related to empirically validated strategies to assist college students with learning disabilities (LD). Given that students with LD demonstrate both fewer test‐taking skills and higher levels of test anxiety than their peers without LD, and poor test‐taking skills contribute to higher levels of test anxiety, such research is critical. The present study examines the effectiveness of the test‐taking strategy on test performance (timed/untimed), degree of strategy usage, and time on test‐taking task, with a sample of university students with LD. This strategy has been successful with adolescents with LD, but has not been studied with postsecondary populations. Results of a multiple baseline design suggested that the strategy was an effective intervention for these students. Implications are discussed.     

Effects of online note taking formats and self-monitoring prompts on learning from online text: Using technology to enhance self-regulated learning

This study explored conditions under which note taking methods and self-monitoring prompts are most effective for facilitating information collection and achievement in an online learning enviornment. In experiment 1 30 students collected notes from a website using an online conventional, outline, or matrix note taking tool. In experiment 2 119 students collected notes from a larger, more ecologically valid set of learning materials using the conventional, outline, or the matrix tool. One half of the students also received prompts designed to encourage self-monitoring. Results of both experiments indicated that the matrix note taking device was a superior tool for collecting information and for achievement. Results of experiment 2 indicated that self-monitoring prompts have a significant positive impact on notes taken and achievement as well. Results are discussed relative to self-regulated learning and perceptual enhancement theories.     

Self‐Regulation and Mathematics Instruction

Abstract The purpose of this article is to provide an overview of research‐based interventions that incorporate self‐regulation strategies to improve mathematics performance of students with learning disabilities (LD). Self‐regulation is a metacognitive function essential to academic success. Students with LD are notoriously poor at self‐regulation and must be taught explicitly to monitor and control their cognitive activities as they engage in academic tasks such as mathematical problem solving. This article describes intervention studies that use self‐regulation strategies to improve mathematics performance of students with LD at the elementary, middle, and secondary school levels. Several techniques to facilitate effective implementation of self‐regulation instruction in the classroom are presented.     

Applying questioning or reading strategy to review technology enhanced coedited notes of elementary school students

The authors examined whether applying questioning review better enhances elementary level students' learning from technology-enhanced coediting-based note taking than does traditional reading review. A nonequivalent comparison group quasi-experimental design was implemented and replicated on four independent units. Two sixth grade elementary classes (66 students) participated in this study and were arranged into coediting notes with questioning review and coediting notes with reading review conditions respectively. The comparisons of student notes and achievement tests do not reveal that the questioning review group achieves better performance than does the reading review group. Considerations associated with technology enhanced coediting notes and questions are discussed based on the results.     

A study of the use of Twitter by students for lecture engagement and discussion

Research indicates that student engagement with lectures, and participation in discussion and debate, greatly improve their learning and experience of University. The nature of some lectures means they can lack opportunities for interaction and active learning. For this reason it can be difficult for some students, especially students new to University, to fully engage in lectures, and interact with their peers. This study attempts to use Twitter as a means of increasing these opportunities for interaction and engagement for students, especially those who may lack the confidence to engage traditionally. As a first step, the study analyses the use of Audience Response Systems to understand the role technology can play in providing opportunities for interaction. Following this, a review of experiments conducted using Twitter is carried out. While there is a dearth of research in this area, these cases provide some valuable insights into the use of this technology and its integration into education. In the methodology section, the process of using Twitter in lectures is explained, along with some of the challenges and obstacles faced. Findings presented indicate that while adoption of Twitter was low, the platform provides engagement opportunities for timid members of the group, while having a generally positive impact on engagement and discussion for the group as a whole. Finally, emerging uses of the Twitter platform are examined, allowing the reader glimpse possibilities for future integration.