Predicting First Grade Reading Performance from Kindergarten Response to Tier 1 Instruction

Many schools are beginning to implement multi-tier response to intervention (RTI) models for the prevention of reading difficulties and to assist in the identification of students with learning disabilities (LD). The present study was part of our larger ongoing longitudinal RTI investigation within the Florida Learning Disabilities Center grant. This study used a longitudinal correlational design, conducted in 7 ethnically and socio-economically diverse schools. We observed reading instruction in 20 classrooms, examined response rates to kindergarten Tier 1 instruction, and predicted students' first grade reading performance based upon kindergarten growth and end of year reading performance (n = 203). Teachers followed an explicit core reading program and overall, classroom instruction was rated as effective. Results indicate that controlling for students' end of kindergarten reading, their growth across kindergarten on a variety of language and literacy measures suppressed predictions of first grade performance. Specifically, the steeper the students' trajectory to a satisfactory outcome, the less likely they were to demonstrate good performance in first grade. Implications for future research and RTI implementation are discussed.     

Response-to-intervention (RTI) as a model to facilitate inclusion for students with learning and behaviour problems

Many students with learning and behaviour problems are routinely excluded from regular education. Although calls have been made to educate students with these problems in the same settings as their typically developing peers, it remains unclear how best to support their needs for academic and behavioural support. We address this question first by describing response-to-intervention (RTI), a specific model of prevention and early intervention for learning and behaviour problems. A comprehensive summary of the RTI literature is provided. Second, we will discuss the feasibility and applicability of RTI as one approach to facilitate inclusion of students with learning and behaviour problems. Specifically, we will demonstrate how RTI can be used to address at least four barriers to inclusion by (1) providing a clear implementation strategy for inclusion practices; (2) clearly defining the roles, responsibilities and collaboration of general and special education teachers; (3) enabling the allocation of resources for instruction and intervention; and (4) avoiding early and unnecessary labelling of students with learning and behaviour problems. Third, limitations of RTI as a model to facilitate inclusion will be discussed.     

Smart RTI: A Next-Generation Approach to Multilevel Prevention

During the past decade, responsiveness to intervention (RTI) has become popular among many practitioners as a means of transforming schooling into a multilevel prevention system. Popularity aside, its successful implementation requires ambitious intent, a comprehensive structure, and coordinated service delivery. An effective RTI also depends on building-based personnel with specialized expertise at all levels of the prevention system. Most agree on both its potential for strengthening schooling and its heavy demand on practitioners. In this article, we describe Smart RTI, which we define as making efficient use of school resources while maximizing students' opportunities for success. In light of findings from recent research, we discuss three important features of Smart RTI: (a) multistage screening to identify risk, (b) multistage assessment to determine appropriate levels of instruction, and (c) a role for special education that supports prevention.     

Extending Responsiveness to Intervention to Mathematics at First and Third Grades

Responsiveness to intervention (RTI) is an innovative approach to the identification of learning disabilities (LD). The central assumption is that RTI can differentiate between two explanations for low achievement: poor instruction versus disability. If the child responds poorly to validated instruction, then the assessment eliminates instructional quality as a viable explanation for poor academic growth and instead provides evidence of a disability. For children who do respond nicely, RTI serves a critical prevention function. Most of RTI research has been focused on early reading. In this article, we describe two ongoing programs of research on RTI in the area of mathematics: one on a comprehensive mathematics curriculum at first grade and the other focused on word problems at third grade. For each research program, we describe the sample, explain how students are identified as at risk for mathematics disability, provide an overview of the interventions to which responsiveness is gauged, and describe some results to date.     

The Insufficiency of Response to Intervention in Identifying Gifted Students with Learning Disabilities

Many states are implementing response‐to‐intervention (RTI)–based assessment as the sole means of identifying students with specific learning disabilities (SLDs). Although RTI is often hailed as an improved model of identification, concern for the possibility of this model elevating false positives has been examined. The risk of RTI producing a second form of diagnostic error, however, has received relatively little attention, namely, false negatives. The widespread implementation of RTI necessitates an analysis of its ability to identify students who are most vulnerable to be inaccurately judged as responsive to instruction, namely, students with coexisting intellectual talent and SLDs.     

Making “secondary intervention” work in a three-tier responsiveness-to-intervention model: findings from the first-grade longitudinal reading study of the National Research Center on Learning Disabilities

Responsiveness-to-intervention (RTI) is a method for both preventing and helping to identify learning disabilities. An important feature is its multi-tier structure: primary intervention (tier 1) refers to classroom instruction; secondary intervention (tier 2) usually involves more intensive pullout, small-group instruction; and tertiary intervention (tier 3) typically denotes most intensive special education. Despite RTI’s popularity and promise, there are many questions about how to implement it effectively and efficiently. So, in 2001, the Office of Special Education Programs in the U.S. Department of Education funded the National Research Center on Learning Disabilities to conduct two large-scale, field-based, longitudinal, and experimental RTI studies. Both studies, one in reading and one in math, were conducted at first grade, with annual follow up for 3 years in the reading study and 2 years in the math study. This article summarizes findings from the reading study, which was designed to answer three basic questions about RTI’s pivotal secondary intervention: Who should participate in it? What instruction should be conducted to decrease the prevalence of reading disabilities? How should responsiveness and non-responsiveness be defined?     

Identifying specific learning disability: is responsiveness to intervention the answer?

Responsiveness to intervention (RTI) is being proposed as an alternative model for making decisions about the presence or absence of specific learning disability. I argue that there are many questions about RTI that remain unanswered, and radical changes in proposed regulations are not warranted at this time. Many fundamental issues related to RTI are unresolved, and a better strategy may be to more rigorously implement existing identification criteria (e.g., discrepancy and psychological processing deficits) in a structured psychometric framework. Suggestions on how to modify present procedures are provided.     

On the importance of a cognitive processing perspective: an introduction

Children with learning problems require early intervention. If it is evidence based and implemented with integrity and intensity, it will accelerate the academic progress of many students. This is the hope and expectation of the many supporters of responsiveness-to-intervention (RTI). A minority of children, however, will not respond sufficiently to such intervention because of learning disorders like specific learning disabilities (SLD). Some RTI models do not include research-backed methods to identify these children, nor do RTI practitioners often produce the data necessary to develop individualized instruction for them. The authors suggest practitioners go beyond typical RTI assessment data documenting responsiveness/ unresponsiveness to conduct comprehensive evaluations of these most difficult-to-teach students and to include in their evaluations carefully chosen cognitive measures. This special issue presents the work of teams of researchers, which suggests that cognitive and neuropsychological assessments can provide information to further understand SLD, which in turn can guide development of promising interventions.     

学生的非标准思路及其教学价值

在教学中,要真正做到让学生自主发展,就必须注意到学生真实的思维状态。为此,应该关注学生自己的思路,尤其是与教师预定思路不同的非标准思路。这些非标准思路出现在课堂上是有其必要性和必然性的。它们可以提供难得的教育机会、形成教育资源;若善加利用,必将产生巨大的作用,这包括开发学生的智慧潜能、产生认识上的飞跃,训练学生思维、形成开放而严密的认识,让学生形成自主判断的能力和主动学习的态度。     

Preservice training in response to intervention: Learning by doing an interdisciplinary field experience

Marking major changes in professional role performance, response to intervention (RTI) is now in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 2004) as a possible method to improve the identification of specific learning disabilities. Moreover, RTI and related concepts and initiatives have fundamentally influenced more general methods of prevention, instruction and intervention services, and decision making in schools. Although RTI will continue to evolve, core characteristics of RTI that form the basis of state initiatives are well founded in intervention and instructional research and practice. These core characteristics (i.e., data‐based decision making, evidence‐based intervention, teaming, and problem solving) represent skills immediately needed by professionals‐in‐training. This article reports collaboration between school psychology and special education faculty in designing and implementing an integrative field experience in RTI. Training, student, and program outcomes are used summatively for accountability. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

《开放英语I》的有效课堂教学

人们普通认为学校教学中的课堂教学是英语教学最理想的形式。课堂教学效率的高低决定整个英语教学的效率,而课堂上到底应怎么做却决定于英语教师的指导思想和实际教学本领。通过分析《开放英语I》的学生在学习过程中存在的问题,指出学生的自信,得出教师的教学方法是提高课堂教学效果的重要因素。     

Response to intervention for reading difficulties in the primary grades: some answers and lingering questions

The purpose of this article is to describe the current research base and identify research needs related to response to intervention (RTI) frameworks in primary-grade reading. Research is reviewed on early reading instruction and intervention, the implementation of multitiered reading interventions, and the determination of intervention responsiveness. Areas identified as in need of research include (a) the conditions under which early reading interventions are most effective in RTI contexts, (b) multitiered interventions for students with limited English proficiency, (c) reading instruction for students who make limited progress in Tier 3 intensive interventions, (d) criteria for determining intervention responsiveness, and (e) the effects of fully implemented RTI frameworks. Although RTI research may be expensive and difficult to implement, it may contribute to improved reading outcomes for many students who are otherwise at risk of serious negative life consequences.     

Enhancing Eighth Grade Students' Learning of Buoyancy: The Interaction of Teachers' Instructional Approach and Students' Learning Preference Styles

This study investigates the potential of enhancing students' learning of difficult science concepts by exploring the interaction between teachers' four different instructional approaches and students' four different learning preference styles. Students' immediate performance and their retention for learning of buoyancy concepts serve to examine the effects, using the concept of “buoyancy,” which has been classified as a difficult concept because it is at a higher hierarchical level and involves the understanding of both matter and process. Results indicate that students' post-test scores were significantly affected by both the types of instruction and students' learning preference styles; while students' retention test scores were significantly affected by the types of instructions. Moreover, this study does not support that matching teaching style with students' learning preference would make students' learning more effective. Nevertheless, because procedural learning preference styles (QB-learning preference) students performed better on the retention test than other learning preference styles students, it indicates the possibility that procedural learners are more efficient than others for learning such higher hierarchical and difficult concepts, regardless of the types of instruction students receive.     

以建构主义为理论基础的大学英语网络教学实践研究

大学英语传统教学模式亟待改革,而以建构主义为理论基础的英语网络教学因其强大的自身优势成为大学英语教学模式改革的方向.然而,网络教学模式的先天性缺陷和我国大学生英语自主学习能力的现状决定了网络自主学习不能完全取代传统的课堂教学.当前,切实可行的大学英语网络教学模式应该将网络自主学习与课堂面授相结合,最大程度地扬长避短,以取得大学英语教学的最佳效果.     

Using ARCS Model to Promote 11th Graders' Motivation and Achievement in Learning about Acids and Bases

The purposes of this study are: to apply the ARCS model in designing an acid and bases unit, and to assess a single class of 11th graders for motivation and achievement outcomes before and after ARCS instruction. Four essential strategies for designing motivation instruction in the ARCS model were: Attention, Relevance, Confidence, and Satisfaction. We used the ARCS model in designing a 10-hour acids and bases lesson for one class of 11th graders with low interest and motivation in chemistry learning. Both the Students' Motivation toward Science Learning questionnaire (SMTSL) (Tuan, Chin & Shieh, in press) and a teacher-designed achievement test were implemented before and after instruction. In addition, students' self-reporting on time engagement in learning before and during the instruction was also collected. The results of the study indicated that both students' motivation and achievement in the acids and bases unit increased significantly (p<0.05) after the ARCS instruction. Students' time engagement during the ARCS lessons had increased from before. Findings of the study showed that using the ARCS model to teach acids and bases unit could improve low motivated students' level of motivation and achievement. The implications for chemistry teaching will be discussed in the paper.     

Evaluation of the Effects of the Medium of Instruction on Science Learning of Hong Kong Secondary Students: Students’ Self-Concept in Science

A longitudinal study has been conducted to explore the impact of a new language policy for Hong Kong secondary schools on science learning. According to this policy, only schools that recruit the best 25% of students can teach science in English, the students' second language, while the other schools have to teach science in Chinese, the students' native language. The study involved a student cohort of 100 schools starting from S1 for three years. The outcome of science learning is conceptualized as consisting of students' achievement and self-concept in science. This paper reports the possible effects of English-medium instruction (EMI) and Chinese-medium instruction (CMI) on students' self-concept in science, as measured by students' responses to a questionnaire. Comparing with the CMI students, the EMI students showed higher self-concepts in Chinese, English and Mathematics, but a lower self-concept in science. This finding suggests that the EMI students might experience greater learning problems in science than in other subjects, probably because science learning involves abstract thinking and the mastery of scientific terminology which make a high demand on language proficiency. The EMI students showed a greater interest in learning science than the CMI students, indicating that they were more academically oriented. The EMI students, however, formed a lower perceived self-competence in science than their CMI peers, despite that they performed better in the science achievement test than many of the CMI students. This perception supports the view that using English for instruction may have negative effects on science learning. It is also consistent with the observation that the EMI students perceived science as more difficult to understand and learn than the CMI students.     

Just‐in‐time pedagogy: teachers' perspectives on the response to intervention framework

The purpose of this mixed methods research is to examine teachers' perspectives on the response to intervention (RTI) framework and its implementation in Michigan and Texas schools. Both states have been leaders in literacy, increasing preservice and in‐service teacher certification standards and developing similar batteries for assessing literacy skills. Using the International Reading Association's RTI principles, the following question directed this inquiry: what are the perspectives of teachers in various educational, geographic, economic and cultural settings of the RTI? The research was developed through questionnaires, focus groups and semi‐structured interviews. Findings revealed that teacher professional development, assessments and collaboration for instruction were highly integrated themes when developing RTI strategies as reforming practice and increasing student literacy. Michigan and Texas teachers were more confident and comfortable in measuring and identifying students with reading difficulties over their ability to prevent learning disabilities through their instruction.     

Embedding cooperative learning into the design of integrated learning systems: Rationale and guidelines

An Integrated Learning System (ILS) is an advanced computer-based instructional system, generally consisting of a set of computerized courseware covering several grade levels and content areas, and complex classroom management and reporting features. Although ILSs have become increasingly popular in schools over the past five to ten years, they introduce several potential factors that could have negative effects on students' academic and social growth. These factors include: (a) de-emphasis of affective outcomes and increased student isolation, (b) lack of teacher involvement in curriculum planning and delivery, and (c) disparate effects on student achievement based on students' academic level. One possible strategy for addressing these concerns is integrating cooperative learning with ILS instruction. This paper will examine the research dealing with integrating cooperative learning strategies and computer-based instruction and provide guidelines and strategies for designing ILS instruction that enhances opportunities for cooperative learning.Thomas A. Brush is Assistant Professor of Educational Technology at Arizona State University where he can be reached at Educational Media and Computers, Arizona State U., Box 870111, Tempe, AZ 85287-0111