A meta-analysis of meausures of self-esteem for young children: a framework for future measures

The objective of this study was to synthesize information from literature on measures of the self in young children to create an empirical framework for developing future methods for measuring this construct. For this meta-analysis, all available preschool and early elementary school self-esteem studies were reviewed. Reliability was used as the criterion variable and the predictor variables represented different aspects of methodology that are used in testing an instrument: study characteristics, method characteristics, subject characteristics, measure characteristics, and measure design characteristics. Using information from two analyses, the results indicate that the reliability of self-esteem measures for young children can be predicted by the setting of the study, number of items in the scale, the age of the children being studied, the method of data collection (questionnaires or pictures), and the socioeconomic status of the children. Age and number of items were found to be critical features in the development of reliable measures for young children. Future studies need to focus on the issues of age and developmental limitations on the complicated problem of how young children actually think about the self and what methods and techniques can aid in gathering this information more accurately.     

自闭症儿童父母歧视知觉和群际关系的特点--自尊的调节作用

采用问卷法对501名自闭症儿童父母进行调查研究,考察自闭症儿童父母歧视知觉和群际关系的特点,并重点考察歧视知觉对群际关系的影响及自尊的调节作用。结果表明:(1)自闭症儿童父母歧视知觉和群际关系在部分人口学变量上存在差异;(2)歧视知觉对自闭症儿童父母的群际关系具有显著负向预测作用;(3)自尊在歧视知觉和群际关系间具有调节作用,歧视知觉对高自尊水平自闭症儿童父母群际关系的预测力显著,而对低自尊水平自闭症儿童父母群际关系的预测力并不显著。     

Self-esteem: A cross-cultural comparison of British-Chinese,White British and Hong Kong Chinese children

Total raw self-esteem scores of 1303 children, including Chinese children in Britain and Hong Kong and White British, were assessed by using the Self-esteem Inventory developed by Coopersmith (1967). Across all samples, the results show little differences between children of different ages, whereas statistically significant differences occur in the independent variables of ethnic groups, gender and educational aspiration. Despite the social disadvantages that the UK Chinese may face, they have significantly higher self-esteem than their Hong Kong Chinese counterparts, but have little differences from their White peers. This indicates that they are likely to have positive feelings and academic confidence in being themselves and as part of the host society. In contrast, Hong Kong children tend to have low levels of self-esteem, which may be caused by the more self-effacing and modest values in Chinese culture, a traditional authoritarian style of education or highly competitive pressures created by schools, families and society.     

Self-system concomitants of discrepancies between children's and teacher's evaluations of academic competence

The purpose of this study was to elucidate the psychological concomitants of discrepancies between fourth- to sixth-grade children's perceptions of academic competence and 2 measures of their "actual" competence in this domain: teacher ratings and achievement test scores. Over-, under-, and congruent child raters were identified on the basis of the 2 external standards and then compared on child and teacher ratings of self-esteem, self-regulatory style, and coping with perceived failure. 6 teachers and 121 lower- to upper-middle-class suburban students participated. As predicted, no differences were obtained between congruent and distorted (combined over- and under-) raters on these self-system variables. Consistent with previous research, overrating children showed higher self-esteem on self- and teacher ratings than underraters. After controlling for level of perceived competence, overraters scored higher on anxiety, and, when overrating occurred against the teacher standard, these children were rated by teachers as having lower self-esteem, poorer coping strategies, and less internalized self-regulatory styles. Comparing the 2 standards, self-reported difficulties were associated with underrating against the teacher's standard but not the achievement standard. Teacher reported difficulties were associated with the opposite pattern of underrating against the 2 standards. Motivational factors contributing to patterns of discrepancies are discussed, as are the educational implications of mismatches between teacher and student perceptions of objective and intrapsychic aspects of school experience.     

Developmental trajectories and longitudinal mediation effects of self-esteem,peer attachment,child maltreatment and depression on early adolescents

ObjectivesThe purpose of this study is to identify the developmental trajectories of peer attachment, self-esteem, depression, and child maltreatment, and to understand the longitudinal mediation effects that peer attachment and self-esteem have on the influence of perceived abuse on early adolescent depression.MethodsThis study uses Year 1 to Year 5 data of the 4th grader panel of the Korea Youth Panel Survey (KYPS) and utilizes a multivariate latent growth model to analyze the main variables in the applicable data between 5th (i.e., Year 2) and 8th (i.e., Year 5) grades.ResultsThe results indicate that from the 5th to the 8th grade, the degree of abuse and depression increases while self-esteem gradually decreases with slowly lowering peer attachment. A significant distribution of the initial values and the rate of change were present for all main variables of the study, confirming individual differences in time wise changes. Further, more exposure to abuse correlated with a decrease in self-esteem, while an increase in self-esteem greatly reduced depression. The initial value of self-esteem showed a partial mediation effect, whereas the rate of change indicated a full mediation effect with a significant longitudinal mediation effect. More experience of abuse during early adolescence indicated a lower degree of peer attachment, and a higher peer attachment was related to decreased depression. A significant partial mediation effect was present for both the initial value and the rate of change of peer attachment, and a longitudinal mediation effect was present.Practice implicationsThis study confirmed that self-esteem in early adolescents is an important protective factor that can greatly reduce the degree of depression, and suggests continuous interventions conducted to increase self-esteem in adolescence. Furthermore, by determining that peer attachment decreases the degree of depression in children at risk, the study emphasizes the healing aspect of adolescent peer attachment.     

Cooperative-competitive social orientation and school achievement among Anglo-American and Mexican-American children

Researchers have suggested that the relatively poor academic performance of Mexican-American compared to Anglo-American children may result from cultural differences in cooperative-competitive social orientation. To test the relative contribution of cooperative-competitive social orientation as a personality predictor of school achievement, the cooperativeness-competitiveness, field independence, locus of control, self-esteem, and school achievement of 45 Anglo-American and 125 Mexican-American fourth, fifth, and sixth grade children were assessed. The results indicate (1) competitiveness is positively related to school achievement among the Anglo-American children but not the Mexican-American children; (2) among the Anglo-American children competitiveness is a better predictor of school achievement than field independence, locus of control, and self-esteem; (3) the personality variables are moderately but not independently related to school achievement within both cultural groups; and (4) the between-culture variance in the personality variables does not account for the between-culture variance in school achievement. Implications of the present results for understanding within- and between-group differences in school achievement are discussed.     

The relationship between gender, depression, and self-esteem in children who have witnessed domestic violence.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate whether there are measurable gender differences in self-esteem and depression in elementary school-age children who have witnessed domestic violence. METHOD: Forty-five elementary school-age children who were identified as having witnessed domestic violence, and their teachers were surveyed for self-esteem, depression, and classroom behaviors. The results were compared between males and females using linear regression modeling. RESULTS: No significant gender differences were found for self-esteem and depression. An interaction between gender and post-traumatic stress was found to play a significant role in the interpretation of the results. CONCLUSIONS: Results indicated that higher levels of symptoms indicative of post-traumatic stress were associated with greater numbers of depressive symptoms and lower self-esteem for boys who had witnessed domestic violence. The results appeared similar to previous work with children and their emotional reactions to divorce.     

The self-perception of a learning disability and its relationship to academic self-concept and self-esteem

Eighty-seven children with learning disabilities, aged 9 through 11 years 11 months, completed measures of self-esteem, academic self-concept, and self-perception of their learning disability. The Self-Perception of Learning Disability (SPLD) instrument measures the extent to which children with learning disabilities perceive their disability as (a) delimited rather than global, (b) modifiable rather than permanently limiting, and (c) not stigmatizing. It was hypothesized that self-perception of one's learning disability would be related positively to both academic self-concept and self-esteem, and that each of these relationships would remain significant when controlling for sex, ethnicity, age, reading and math achievement, self-contained versus mainstreamed classroom setting, and age at diagnosis. Correlations and multiple regression analyses confirmed these hypotheses. Results were discussed in terms of helping children to develop less negative self-perceptions of their disabilities.     

Secondary symptoms of dyslexia: a comparison of self-esteem and anxiety profiles of children with and without dyslexia

The secondary symptoms of individuals with dyslexia, such as high anxiety and low self-esteem, have aroused various debates not only in the educational, but also in the clinical context. Since pro and contra arguments are supported by a more or less equal number of empirical findings, no final conclusion could be drawn for this specific phenomenon. The current study aims to contribute more data in this respect and offers a possible explanation for both sides that either support or reject the relationship between dyslexia and its secondary symptoms. The main investigation of this study is the comparison of anxiety and self-esteem profiles of children with and without dyslexia. Participants are 124 school children aged between eight and 11 years. Their IQ as well as their reading and writing ability were also measured and used as control variables. All data were collected and analysed using a quantitative approach. Effect sizes are also provided in order to facilitate meta-analysis in the future and to confirm the results of a significant test. The results indicate that children with dyslexia have anxiety and self-esteem issues in the specific context or domain. However, their general anxiety and self-esteem were not impaired. A discussion regarding the possibility and/or the necessity of the secondary symptoms of dyslexia is also provided.     

Motivational and academic effects of cultural experiences for indigenous minority students in New Zealand

Children aged seven to 10 from the indigenous Maori minority group in New Zealand participated in a year-long cultural intervention designed to increase self-esteem and locus of control. The intervention incorporated good teaching practices linked to self-esteem and locus of control with principles of culturally relevant teaching. Compared to matched children who did not participate in the intervention, the focus children had significantly more positive self-esteem and locus of control after the intervention than before. Parallel changes were apparent in a measure of scholastic aptitude, but not on measures of reading, mathematics, and listening achievement. The results are discussed in terms of the importance and effectiveness of using theoretically informed teaching practices in a culturally relevant way in low income, mainstream school settings.     

Social Categorization and the Formation of Intergroup Attitudes in Children

The study was designed to test several hypotheses derived from intergroup theory concerning the effects of the presence of a novel social category on the formation of intergroup attitudes. Elementary school children (N = 61; aged 6–9) were given measures of classification skill and self-esteem and assigned to 1 of 3 types of school classrooms in which teachers made: (1) functional use of "blue" and "yellow" groups assigned on the basis of a biological attribute, (2) functional use of "blue" and "yellow" groups assigned on the basis of a random drawing, or (3) no explicit groups (despite the presence of blue and yellow groups). After 4 weeks, children completed measures of intergroup attitudes and behavior. As predicted, the functional use of color groups affected children's attitudes toward group members, with children showing consistent biases favoring their own group. Children with higher levels of self-esteem showed higher levels of intergroup stereotyping.     

家庭因素对大学生自尊发展的影响研究——以毕节学院为例

大学生的心理健康一直是社会关注的热点问题,而自尊作为个体对自我价值的评判,一直影响着个体的心理健康。为了探讨影响大学生自尊发展的家庭因素,为大学生的心理健康教育提供相关依据。本研究以问卷调查的方式试图通过对地方高校大学生自尊发展的家庭影响因素进行量化的研究。结果表明：大学生自尊水平在性别变量和父亲文化的变量上差异显著;家庭的多种因素对大学生的自尊发展产生了显著的影响。     

The role of affective traits in the creative and problem-solving performance of gifted urban children

Problem-solving and creativity measures were administered to 127 gifted New York City school children from grades 4–6, in an attempt to relate these cognitive variables to the affective traits of locus of control, self-esteem, and tolerance of ambiguity. A canonical correlation analysis indicated one significant canonical set (p <.05) in which 46% of the variability in a set of cognitive measures was explained by a set of affective measures. A factor analysis was performed on the creativity and problem-solving tasks, with two factors emerging: Fluency and Rearrangement. Factor scores were used to analyze sex and grade differences. Sex differences on the cognitive tasks were consistent with those reported in the literature. No sex differences were obtained on the affective tasks. Grade 4 students differed significantly from grade 6 students on the Rearrangement factor only. On the affective tasks, grade 4 students differed from both grade 5 and grade 6 students only on tolerance of ambiguity. Results were discussed in terms of the importance of affective personality traits in the creative and problem-solving process.     

Parental education and the socialization of the child: Internality, valorization and self-positioning

Contemporary western society is characterised by an individualistic model of the person. Conceptions of socialization insist more on self expression and development than on the individual’s submission to social requirements. Values concerned with individual responsibility and self-realization guide educative actions. The article analyses the influence of parental education on internality and self-esteem in the child with particular attention to how parents lead the child to become responsible (commitment). Two hundred parents (from contrasting social backgrounds) answered a questionnaire on internality and a question on self-esteem. According to their social background, the parents adopt educative practices which induce more or less responsibility in the child. Leading the child to accept responsibility in daily life encourages the learning of internality, but family education has little influence on self-esteem. How subjects “positioned” themselves, i.e., how they placed themselves a variety of measures was examined. Some preferred to position themselves in the centre of the scales while others placed themselves on the extremes. There was a correlation between the positioning of the parents and that of the children.     

An exploration of family and individual profiles following father-daughter incest

This paper presents the results of a range of psychometric assessments which attempted to identify family and individual variables associated with father-daughter incest. Psychometric self-report measures were used to examine differences between families in which incest had been confirmed and a matched comparison group. Significant differences between the members of the incest and the comparison groups included behavioral and self-esteem problems in the daughters and differences in the familial environments of the two groups. Daughters who had been sexually abused reported lower levels of self-esteem about their intellectual and school status. Mothers in the incest group reported that their daughters had more conduct problems than the comparison mothers. The incest families were generally reported to be higher in conflict and organization and lower in cohesion, expressiveness, and active recreation. No differences between groups were found for levels of marital adjustment, self-esteem in mothers, or overall level of psychopathology in the perpetrators.     

外来民工子弟学生与本地学生自我价值感的比较研究

通过调查外来民工子弟学生与本地学生自我价值感发展状况。结果表明:两类被试在特殊自我价值感上存在显著性差异,而在总体和一般自我价值感上无显著性差异;六年级的当地普通学生在个人取向家庭自我价值、社会取向人际和生理自我价值感上都显著高于外来民工子弟学生,而在社会取向心理自我价值感上则显著低于后者;外来民工子弟男生在个人取向生理自我价值感上显著高于当地普通男生;但女生在这个方面显著低于当地普通女生。     

Preschool children's attention to environmental messages about groups: social categorization and the origins of intergroup bias

This study was designed to examine the effects of adults' labeling and use of social groups on preschool children's intergroup attitudes. Children (N=87, aged 3-5) attending day care were given measures of classification skill and self-esteem and assigned to membership in a novel ("red" or "blue") social group. In experimental classrooms, teachers used the color groups to label children and organize the classroom. In control classrooms, teachers ignored the color groups. After 3 weeks, children completed multiple measures of intergroup attitudes. Results indicated that children in both types of classrooms developed ingroup-biased attitudes. As expected, children in experimental classrooms showed greater ingroup bias on some measures than children in control classrooms.     

高中生考试焦虑、自尊和应对方式的现状及关系

以721名高二学生为被试,进行考试焦虑、自尊和简易应对方式的问卷调查,结果发现:高中生考试焦虑现状不容忽视;高中生考试焦虑、自尊和消极应对方式表现出性别差异;自尊和应对方式是影响高中生考试焦虑的重要因素,其中应对方式又是自尊影响考试焦虑的中间变量。     

Self-concept,Attributional Style and Depression

The purpose of the present study was to investigate how self-concept and attributional style are related to depression in a student group. On the basis of an inventory, 166 advanced teacher students were scored on general and academic self-esteem, attribution for positive and negative events, and depression. The two self-esteem variables were found to constitute important predictors of depression, while the contributions of the attributional variables were of minor importance. In addition, pessimistic attributions to both positive and negative events resulted in higher depression than pessimistic attributions to either kind of events, and to neither kind of events. Finally, factor analysis resulted in interpretable solutions.     

Parenting during the Second Year: Effects of Children's Age, Sex, and Attachment Classification

70 2-parent families with 12-month-old infants and 67 2-parent families with 18-month-old toddlers participated in the study. Mothers and fathers participated in separate interviews and filled out questionnaires on family and child behaviors. Mothers and their children participated in the Ainsworth Strange Situation, and the families were observed for a total of 4 hours in their homes. Families were compared on composite measures of family environment variables, parents' perception of their children, and on process variables from home observations. Family differences in environmental stress and marital adjustment showed no effects for attachment classifications, although parents of 12-month-olds reported greater marital adjustment and more pleasure in parenting than parents of 18-months-olds. Both mothers and fathers reported that children classified as resistant were more difficult on several temperament measures. During home observations, 12-month-old children received more positive responses from mothers, and 18-month-old children received more instructions and directions from both parents. Insecure boys (both avoidant and resistant) received the least instructions and directions from both parents, but insecure-avoidant girls received the most instruction from fathers.