如何提高高三学生的备考效益

一、自我效能感理论简述 自我效能感（self-etficency）是指个体对自己能否成功地进行某一成就行为的主观判断。班杜拉在动机理论中认为，强化学习中有重要作用。它能够激发和推进行为的动机以控制和调节人的行为。这种作用通过人的认知形成期待，成为决定行为的先行因素（行为的出现的原因不是随后的强化），人在认知到行为与强化之间的相倚关系号之后产生的对下一步强化的期待。     

利用关键事件提升德育效果

生活中的德育内容在丰富学生生活阅历的同时，也影响着学生的认知和行为方式，这种影响主要是基于学生“经历”过的各种事件。已有研究表明，一些关键事件（指对学生的学习和生活具有重要影响的事件）不仅能够引起学生的思考或探索，更会对他们的思想和行为形成关键性的影响。这就要求我们在德育工作中注意挖掘学生成长中关键事件的教育价值，使关键事件成为学生行为转化的关键点，进而提高德育工作的整体效果。     

叙事，可以做到更精彩——记叙文写作方法介绍

记事类记叙文的着眼点在在于展现事件过程，反映事件的本质与意义。写好这类文章，应该以描述事件为中心，至于写人、描景、状物都应为叙事服务。阅读、分析优秀叙事类记叙文（以下简称“叙事文”），同学们可以发现，这些文章在叙事过程中善于打造亮点、形成特色、强化效果方面是有规律可循的。     

学生公德行为的影响要素及其动机基础

对影响中学生（非）公德行为主要因素的归因问卷调查和分析研究可得出以下结论：1）从总体来看，学生公德行为和非公德行为的产生，主要受管理威慑和他人诱发的影响，其次受环境特征和当时需要的影响；2）各主要因素对学生（非）公德行为的影响，因不同类型的公德情境和不同年级的学生而有显的差异；3）学生（非）公德行为的产生和变化的动机基础，主要来源于对自身利益对自身影响的考虑。与其他方法、方式相比较而言，社会公德建设更需要制度的监督和保障。学校道德教育和社会公德教育应辩证地处理利他与利己之间的关系。     

初中生生活事件、应对方式与攻击性行为的关系研究

为了改善初中生攻击性行为,从生活事件和应对方式两方面分析对攻击性行为的影响,为心理健康教育工作的有效开展提供依据和指导。采用《青少年生活事件量表》《简易应对方式问卷》《Buss&Perry攻击性行为量表》,对419名初中生进行问卷调查,探究初中生生活事件、应对方式与其攻击性行为的关系。结果表明,初中生攻击性行为总体水平中等偏上,具体表现为言语攻击>敌意>身体攻击>愤怒;初中生攻击性行为在年级、父母是否离异上均存在显著差异（P<0.001）,在性别上不存在显著差异（P>0.05）;初中生生活事件、应对方式与攻击性行为间存在显著相关（P<0.05）。生活事件及消极应对对攻击性行为存在正向预测作用（P<0.001）,积极应对对攻击性行为存在负向预测作用（P<0.001）,生活事件和应对方式共同解释了攻击性行为76.1%的变异。     

强化激励在教师管理中的应用

强化激励在教师管理中的应用○吴运友卢金萍（江苏省射阳县万隆初中）强化激励是运用奖励和惩罚等手段进行激励的方法。心理学理论把人们对某种行为给予肯定和奖赏，以巩固、保持这种行为称之为正强化；把对某种行为给予否定和惩罚，使之减弱称之为负强化；把对某种行为不...     

强化和惩罚在课堂行为管理运用中应注意的几个问题

在日常的课堂教学中，每个教师都有意无意地运用强化和惩罚进行课堂行为管理，例如课后留校、体罚、公开批评、纸低分、威胁等是教师常用的惩罚手段。而教师在课堂行为管理中常用的强化手段不外乎有：口头表扬、微机、给予特别的关心和照顾、给高分（统称社会性强化）、给学生发奖品、奖章、奖金等（统称实物强化）。我们说，恰当地使用强化和惩罚。可以达到对课堂行为进行有效管理、促进课堂教学的有效进行之目的，但由于强化和惩罚有其固有的局限性，若再加上教师使用不当，极有可能使强化和惩罚的效果适得其反，对学生的学习和心理产生长期的不利影响。有鉴于此，笔者认为，教师在课堂行为管理中运用强化和惩罚时应注意以下几个问题。     

L—统计量的Bootstrap逼近的非一致性速度

文（１）中讨论了Ｌ－统计量的Ｂｏｏｔｓｔｒａｐ逼近的一致性速度，本文则研究了其非一致性速度。     

加大工作力度 加快“普九”步伐

加大工作力度加快“普九”步伐五大连池市教委王文奇刘冬梅我们五大连池市共有１６个乡（镇），截止１９９６年底，已有１０个乡（镇）基本达到了“两基”要求。现在，全市上下形成了狠抓“普九”的良好氛围，“普九”工作正快步前进。一、强化政府行为，增加教育投入，确...     

论强化在培养幼儿良好行为习惯中的作用与运用

习惯是人的第二天性,幼儿阶段是习惯养成的关键期。强化是塑造幼儿行为的重要手段,也是培养幼儿良好习惯的常用方法。强化对于培养幼儿良好行为习惯有多方面的积极作用:为幼儿提供行为习惯的反馈信息;巩固良好行为,消除不良行为;形成自我强化,保持良好行为习惯。运用强化塑造幼儿良好行为习惯时,要注意一些策略:注重强化的时机;明确欲强化的行为,采取鲜明的态度;注重强化的一致性;体现强化的差异性;灵活运用强化。     

The belief revision model: asymmetrical effects of noncontingency on human covariation learning

A noncontingent experience affects the subsequent detection of positive and negative contingencies between the same events. Experiments 1 and 2 showed that such preexposure can produce both an impairment in the detection of subsequent positive contingency and a facilitation of a negative one, independent of the level of contingency during the contingent phase. Experiment 3 raised difficulties for a model that assumes that associations to the context can explain this asymmetrical effect. Experiment 4 suggested that the different weights usually assigned to the different types of trials when computing the contingency between events can change as a result of a noncontingent experience with the same events. This change supports an account of the asymmetrical effect by a belief revision model based on a mechanism that updates the weights of the different trial types as a function of previous experience. More generally, the belief revision model is a statistical (i.e., nonassociative) model of learning that is capable of accounting for trial-order effects, which have long posed problems for statistical models.     

Expectation and anticipation of dynamic visual events by 3.5-month-old babies

We report an investigation of the development of visual expectancies in 3.5-month-old infants. One of the infant's eyes was videorecorded as the infant watched a series of slides that were presented noncontingent on behavior. Babies were presented an alternating and an irregular series of 30 slides with a 700-msec onset duration separated by an interstimulus interval (ISI). The ISI for the alternating series was 1,100 msec, whereas the slides for the irregular series were separated by 900, 1,100, or 1,300 msec, randomly ordered. One-half of the babies saw the irregular series first, and one-half saw the regular series first. Babies in both groups provided evidence that they developed expectations for the visual events in the alternating series. Their reaction times (RTs) declined significantly from 3-5 "baseline" presentations, and their RTs were reliably faster during the alternating than the irregular series. Additionally, babies in the alternating-late group had significantly more stimulus anticipations during the alternating than during the irregular series. These findings indicate that 3.5-month-olds can detect regularity in a spatiotemporal series, will develop expectancies for events in the series, and will act on the basis of those expectancies even when those actions have no effect on the stimulus events. We believe that infants are motivated to develop expectations for noncontrollable spatiotemporal events, because these expectations permit them to bring their visual behavior under partial internal control.     

The effect of noncontingent outcomes on extinction of the response-outcome association

The effect of noncontingent outcomes on an instrumental response-outcome (R-O) association was examined in four experiments using transfer tests. In each experiment, rats were first given instrumental discrimination training designed to establish different stimuli as signals (S+s) for different outcomes. Transfer responses were subjected to different treatments across the experiments and then tested with the S+s. In Experiments 1 and 2, two transfer responses were both initially trained with two contingent outcomes. Then, each transfer response was subjected either to the addition of noncontingent presentations of one of those outcomes (Experiment 1) or to the replacement of one of the contingent outcomes with noncontingent presentations of that outcome (Experiment 2). Transfer tests revealed no significant difference in the ability of an S+ to promote performance of a transfer response based on their shared association with either the contingent or the noncontingent outcome. These results suggest that a response reinforced with two outcomes remains equally well associated with both of those outcomes despite prolonged exposure to noncontingent presentations of one of those outcomes. In Experiments 3 and 4, the possibility that the noncontingent schedules of reinforcement used in Experiments 1 and 2 might be capable of establishing an association between a response and its noncontingent outcome was examined. Transfer responses were trained with one contingent outcome and a different noncontingent outcome. Performance of these transfer responses was augmented more by presentations of an S+ trained with the contingent outcome than with the noncontingent outcome. These results confirm previous reports that instrumental responses are sensitive to outcome contingencies in acquisition and that noncontingent outcome presentations do not weaken previously established R-O associations. Several explanations are considered for the failure of subsequent noncontingent presentations of an outcome to reduce the strength of its association with the instrumental response.     

A developmental analysis of elementary school-aged children's concepts of pride and embarrassment

Developmental changes in conditions engendering pride and embarrassment were explored. Subjects included 41 adults and 189 5-, 7-, 9-, and 11-year-old children from diverse ethnic backgrounds. Subjects were asked to report events that had made them feel proud, embarrassed, happy, and sad. Content analyses of responses concerning pride and embarrassment indicated that references to noncontingent, uncontrollable events decreased with age, but most 5-year-olds understood that feelings of pride and, to a lesser extent, embarrassment result primarily from outcomes controlled by and contingent on one's own behavior or characteristics. Responses of children in all 4 age groups and adults suggest that an audience is important for both pride and embarrassment, but particularly for embarrassment. An audience and external reinforcement were more important in children's than in adults' reports of pride. Developmental change was found in the standards used to evaluate emotional experiences; references to social comparison increased with age and references to mastery decreased.     

Stereotypy of spatial movements during noncontingent and contingent reinforcement

The degree of stereotypy in the movement patterns of 3 pigeons during noncontingent and contingent periodic food reinforcement was quantified by analyzing the distribution of turning angles, and by using information and Fourier analyses. The results indicated that (1) movement patterns were less stereotyped during noncontingent than during contingent reinforcement, (2) a reversal to noncontingent reinforcement resulted in a degree of stereotypy comparable to that during the first phase of noncontingent reinforcement, (3) movement patterns were maximally stereotyped immediately after food withdrawal and generally became less stereotyped as reinforcement approached, regardless of whether reinforcement was noncontingent or contingent, and (4) higher frequency movements generally accounted for more variance in the movements during contingent than during noncontingent reinforcement. Greater stereotypy in the movements during contingent reinforcement was likely due to a greater probability that similar movements were reinforced during contingent reinforcement. Momentary changes in the stereotypy of the movements within the interfood interval might reflect changes in the level of arousal.     

Differential punishment of other behavior: Effects of pause-dependent shock on variable-interval performance

Three albino rats were exposed to a differential-punishment-of-other-behavior shock schedule superimposed on a variable-interval schedule of food presentation. With this arrangement, failure to barpress for a specified interval since the previous response resulted in delivery of shock. This procedure reliably decreased the number of specified pauses and was accompanied by increases in barpress rates and shifts in the distribution of responses. Subsequent exposure to noncontingent shock produced similar, but quantitatively smaller, changes for two of the three subjects. Training with barpress-dependent shock and reexposure to noncontingent shock further diminished these effects. This study demonstrates that pauses are conditionable units of behavior insofar as they are sensitive to a punishment contingency. In terms of the targeted unit of behavior, the current findings are similar to those obtained with barpress-dependent or interresponse-time-dependent shock schedules and suggest a continuum of response specification.     

Diagnosing the Poor Performance of Self‐worth Protective Students: A product of future outcome uncertainty,evaluative threat,or both?

Self‐worth protective students characteristically perform well on some occasions yet on other occasions they perform poorly. In this study, two accounts of the poor performance of self‐worth protective students are assessed. The first is that their poor performance is an outcome of evaluative threat. The second is that their poor performance is an outcome of future outcome uncertainty: a product of their uncertain global self‐esteem and uncertainty about the causes of achievement outcomes. Students high or low in self‐worth protection were exposed to either noncontingent success (creating future outcome uncertainty), noncontingent failure (evoking evaluative threat), or contingent success. Their ability to solve two tasks that involved a high degree of uncertainty was then assessed. Students high in self‐worth protection performed poorly following both noncontingent failure and noncontingent success, supporting the roles of both evaluative threat and future outcome uncertainty. The implications in terms of enhancing the achievement of students high in self‐worth protection are discussed.     

Addressing escape‐maintained behavior for students with developmental disabilities: A systematic review of school‐based interventions

Students with developmental disabilities have been found to exhibit higher rates of problem behavior in the classroom than their typically developing peers. Effectively addressing these students’ behavior concerns requires the identification of interventions that can be implemented in an educational setting. Furthermore, matching intervention strategies to the function of a student's problem behavior may increase its effectiveness. There are data to suggest that students with disabilities exhibit escape‐maintained problem behavior in the classroom twice as frequently as problem behavior maintained by other consequences such as attention or access to tangibles. Thus, the purpose of this systematic review was to identify school‐based intervention strategies that have been used to reduce the disruptive behavior of students with developmental disabilities. In total, 12 articles met search criteria, with escape extinction, curricular modification, and noncontingent escape serving as the most frequently employed intervention strategies. Limitations and future directions are discussed.     

Signal-food contingency and signal frequency in a continuous trials auto-shaping paradigm

Five groups of pigeons were studied in an auto-shaping procedure which programmed two types of trials represented by hues on the response key. Each signal was separated by a brief intertriai interval. Three groups were studied with a positive correlation between one of the signals and food (contingent groups). They differed with respect to the frequency with which the positive signal appeared. Two noncontingent groups were studied in which the correlation between the signals and food was eliminated by programming food with the same probability following either signal. One noncontingent group had a high density of reinforcement produced by adding reinforcement in the other signal, at the same rate as programmed in the positive signal for the contingent groups. The other noncontingent group experienced the same number of reinforcements in the session as the contingent group with the least frequent positive trial, but these reinforcements were distributed with equal probability across the signals. Birds in the contingent groups with intermediate or infrequent positive signals all acquired reliable pecking, with acquisition most rapid for the infrequent signal. Maintained responding covaried with the speed of acquisition. No birds in the noncontingent groups showed reliable responding. Birds in the contingent group with a frequent positive signal (approximately 3/4 of the session), also showed no reliable pecking. This result suggests that more than one noncontingent group is informative for assessing the role of differential reinforcement probability in the acquisition of auto-shaped keypecking. In particular, a noncontingent group which controls for the frequency of reinforced trials is an appropriate reference group.

     

Noncontingent stimulation, stimulus familiarization, and subsequent learning in young infants

2 experiments assessed the effects of prior noncontingent or familiarization experience on subsequent operant conditioning (kick-produced mobile movement) in young infants. In Experiment 1, infants received either long- or short-term noncontingent exposure to their own rotating mobile or simply viewed this mobile for several days while it remained motionless. In Experiment 2, long-term exposure was provided by the same novel mobile used for subsequent training. In both experiments, prior noncontingent experience did not interfere with subsequent conditioning. In Experiment 2, however, simple long-term familiarization with the training mobile precluded "evidence" of learning. The results indicated that infants develop expectancies regarding how stimuli occurring in particular contexts should behave based on their prior experiences with these stimuli.