Defining the nature of blended learning through its depiction in current research

ABSTRACT

Blended learning has been a feature of higher education practice and research for almost two decades. This article takes stock of current blended learning research, contributing to the growing number of meta-analyses of higher education and blended learning research more generally, through a review of ninety-seven articles relating to blended learning in higher education published in fifteen journals between 2012 and mid-2017. The review focused on where and when the articles were published; their provenance, scale, scope; methodological approach; the broad research themes; and definition of blended learning used. The review shows that despite its ubiquity, blended learning’s definition is all-encompassing; its spread is global but research is dominated by key players; it is of technical interest; and its research is small-scale, individually focused, seeking to evidence the benefits of blended learning. The article concludes with recommendations of how higher education research could provide institutions with evidence to ensure their ‘best of blends’.     

Design principles for the blend in blended learning: a collective case study

This paper reports on a collective case study of three blended courses taught by different instructors in a higher education institution, with the purpose of identifying the different types of blend and how the blend supports student learning. Based on the instructors’ and students’ interviews, and document analysis of course outlines, two major principles, consolidation and extension, differentiating the design of the three courses, are identified. The consolidation principle emphasises designing different types of activities for students to think again, so that their knowledge can be consolidated. The extension principle emphasises the extension of the space of learning and catering the diverse needs of students. There are also design principles commonly found, with the emphases on student autonomy, interaction and feedback, and the awareness of student diversity. The findings contribute to the design of blended learning, especially on how the face-to-face and online components can be combined.     

Teaching for blended learning––Research perspectives from on-campus and distance students

The concept of blended learning has begun to change the nature of all teaching and learning in higher education. Information and communication technologies have impacted by providing a means of access to digital resources and interactive communication for all courses and the blending of pedagogy and technology has produced a range of approaches to teaching and learning. This paper discusses the research literature and the writers’ research, defining what they have concluded are teaching practices that use the concept of blended learning effectively. In investigating how ICT can add variation for student learning, they analyze this from two dominant modes of pedagogy, learning environment and pedagogy through both on-campus and distance education. In both modes, students acknowledged the power and effectiveness of blended learning.     

Research in online and blended learning in the business disciplines: Key findings and possible future directions

In this literature review, we examine and assess the state of research of online and blended learning in the business disciplines with the intent of assessing the state of the field and identifying opportunities for meaningful future research. We review research from business disciplines such as Accounting, Economics, Finance, Information Systems (IS), Management, Marketing, and Operations/Supply Chain Management. We found that the volume and quality of research in online and blended business education has increased dramatically during the past decade. However, the rate of progress is somewhat uneven across disciplines. IS, Management, and multi-disciplinary studies have the highest volumes of research activity, with markedly less activity in Finance and Economics. Furthermore, scholars of online and blended business education predominantly publish in learning and education journals of the business disciplines rather than also publishing in journals that focus on technology-mediated learning, thereby missing an opportunity to inform scholars in other disciplines about their work. The most common research streams across disciplines were outcome comparison studies with classroom-based learning and studies examining potential predictors of course outcomes. Results from the comparison studies suggest generally that online courses are at least comparable to classroom-based courses in achieving desired learning outcomes, while there is divergence in findings of comparisons of other course aspects. Collectively, the range of untested conceptual frameworks, the lack of discipline-specific theories, and the relative absence of a critical mass of researchers focused on the topic suggest ample opportunities for business scholars seeking to enter this research community.     

Facilitating flexible learning by replacing classroom time with an online learning environment: A systematic review of blended learning in higher education

Higher education institutions are trying to provide more flexibility and individualization, which is mainly realized through the use of new technologies and implemented in online or blended learning designs. This systematic review aims to investigate the impact of replacing classroom time with an online learning environment. The meta-analysis (k = 21 effect sizes) applied strict inclusion criteria concerning research design, measurement of learning outcomes and implementation of blended learning. The estimated effect size (Hedge's g) was positive, although not significantly different from zero and the confidence interval [-0.13, 0.25], suggesting that overall differences between blended and conventional classroom learning are small, and, at best, very small negative or moderate positive effects are plausible. This means that despite a reduction in classroom time between 30 and 79 per cent, equivalent learning outcomes were found. Consequently, blended learning with reduced classroom time is not systematically more or less effective than conventional classroom learning.     

Enhancing postgraduate learning and development: a participatory action learning and action research approach through conferences

As supervisors who advocate the transformational potential of research both to generate theory and practical and emancipatory outcomes, we practice participatory action learning and action research (PALAR). This paper offers an illustrative case of how supervision practices based on action learning can foster emancipatory and lifelong learning within a university context that is becoming ever more focused on throughput of students, rather than on the quality of their learning. Conference attendance offers an excellent opportunity for postgraduate students to develop as researchers and lifelong learners, yet anxiety often prevents them from making the most of the learning experience. We explain how we encouraged the development of capabilities in students through a PALAR support programme that assisted postgraduate students prepare for a conference to make overall participation, presenting a paper and subsequent publication a true learning experience. We generated and analysed data from the written reflections of 11 postgraduate students who participated in the programme. The findings suggest that action learning, specifically PALAR, can be used to enable a rich learning experience for postgraduate students attending conferences through fostering relationships, building trust, a supportive environment, collaboration, communication and competence among them. Postgraduate students who experienced our PALAR support programme developed not only skills, knowledge, confidence and deeper appreciation of learning opportunities through conferences, but also understanding of the principles of PALAR that apply not just to the conference context but across all aspects of learning and research and life at large.     

试论高职生外语自主学习能力的培养

随着中国经济的快速发展和对外开放程度的进一步提高，外语作为与国际沟通的桥梁，必然在中国的经济、社会和化中发挥重要作用。对高职生外语学习能力的培养主要体现在呈现、实践、运用三个阶段，以培养高职生外语知识的理解、记忆和思考能力、延伸和扩展能力及交际和创新能力。     

Exploring criticality in management education through action learning

The field of management education has been the focus of much debate in recent times. Issues relating to the real world and a lack of relevancy in business schools have caused much of this debate. In particular, questions have been raised regarding why business schools should endeavour to bridge this relevancy gap? However, it is important to define what is meant by relevance. How we define relevance has implications for all stakeholders of management education. As a result, this raises questions about the content and process of management education. For example, how applicable are the alternative approaches to management education such as action learning. How does such an approach translate into the professional practice of educators? What are the benefits and challenges of engaging in such an approach? In particular, what impact does it have for both management educators and their students? When we question what and how we teach it has the potential to open up new questions to be explored and insights to be revealed. This paper reveals a side of management education that is ever present in the philosophy and practice of action-learning practitioners. By exploring the impact of their practice it can inform our understanding and shape future practice. Management education like all education should be open to such exploration. Such an exploration is both timely and relevant for today's educators, students, managers and ultimately society.     

The effect of blended learning on student performance at course-level in higher education: A meta-analysis

The present paper analyzes the impact of blended learning (BL) on the academic achievement of higher education students. A meta-analysis (k = 51 effect sizes) was conducted to perform a statistical synthesis of studies contrasting student performance in BL conditions with traditional classroom instruction. We include disciplines and instructors’ end-of-course evaluation method as moderating variables. The results show that BL demonstrates a small summary effect (g⁺ = 0.385, p < 0.001) compared to traditional teaching methods A significantly higher mean effect size was found in STEM disciplines (g⁺ = 0.496) compared to that of non-STEM disciplines (g⁺ = 0.210). Nevertheless, the weighted mean effect sizes reveal no significant differences regarding of end-of-course assessment methods, namely one-moment and multiple-component assessment. The finding confirms that BL is significantly associated with greater learning performance of STEM-disciplined students than with traditional classroom practice. Accordingly, discussion concerning the findings and implications for future research are elaborated.     

高职旅游管理专业体验式教学法探讨

高职旅游管理是一个实践性与应用性较强的专业,与传统的教学法相比,体验式教学法更注重将理论与实践结合。通过体验式教学法在旅游管理专业的推应用,表明体验式教学法更能突出教学过程中的学生主体性,增强专业学习的主动性和积极性。     

Comparing K-12 online and blended teaching competencies: a literature review

This article presents a synthesis of reports and research on K-12 blended teaching competencies compared with K-12 online teaching competencies. The skills needed to teach in online and blended environments are distinct from traditional teaching, but teacher education programs often do not equip preservice teachers for the new modes of instruction. Additionally, there is a dearth of research on blended teaching competencies. This review synthesizes 8 blended teaching documents and 10 online teaching documents. Seven global themes identified in both competency domains are (1) pedagogy, (2) management, (3) assessment, (4) technology, (5) instructional design, (6) dispositions, and (7) improvement. The top 20 blended teaching skills include flexibility and personalization, mastery-based learning, data usage and interpretation, learning management system usage, online discussion facilitation, and software management. The authors recommend that researchers collect more methodologically transparent data about blended teaching and that teacher education programs include the identified skills in curriculum.     

Psychodidactic approach in the development of language competences in university students within blended learning

Abstract

The paper discusses the deployment of cognitive and affective components for teaching languages in a blended learning university setting. A modified expectancy model of motivation was designed and applied. The usability testing of a language education website was used as a framework with affective and cognitive features. The selection of the education website was based on findings gained from the language needs analysis. The level of students’ language competence representing the cognitive component was diagnosed based on their results in the placement tests in the DIALANG language website. Many students showed progress in language knowledge by the end of the semester. Results were higher than students had expected and enough to encourage further research. The affective part is discussed in the modified expectancy model of motivation that was designed and applied. The psychodidactic approach used in the research met students’ motivational and emotional needs without sacrificing their improved competence in language development.     

Synthesizing research evidence on self-regulated learning and academic achievement in online and blended learning environments: A scoping review

The present study synthesizes research evidence on self-regulated learning (SRL) and academic achievement in online and blended learning environments from intervention and cross-sectional studies. We examined 163 studies conducted in various countries and different learning contexts in terms of study characteristics, methodology, and SRL features. The current study found that SRL in the online and blended learning contexts has been an important topic and has received increased attention. The results revealed the importance of SRL for improving students' academic performance in the STEM field. It also demonstrated that the majority of the studies adopted multiple SRL strategies throughout mixed phases. This study confirmed the effectiveness of SRL on academic achievement in online or blended learning. However, the present study also identified that research on children's and adolescents' SRL strategies in online learning contexts is urgently needed and most of the available research did not focus on the preparatory and planning phases of SRL which are extremely important.     

Student accounts of action learning on a DBA programme: learning inaction

This account of practice sets out the action learning experience of three doctoral students on the same Doctoral Programme in Business Administration at a UK university. It also include the sense-making of a fourth member of the set. It explores the tension between their area of work and their engagement in the action learning process and, in so doing, contributes to the ongoing debate about the relative priority of learning and problem-solving in action learning. The account narrates the students’ personal accounts of their involvement with the action learning set (ALS), what they felt worked and what did not before reflecting on their personal contributions as hybrid practitioner-learners. Insights into the experience are offered up to illuminate the function and purpose of the ALS within a management education programme.     

Beginners and programming: insights from second language learning and teaching

This paper will consider issues that are important in the teaching and learning of programming to students in their first year of an undergraduate course in a computer science discipline. We will suggest that the current educational climate offers the opportunity to move the focus onto the learner and their experience, and that second language learning and teaching in the field of English as a Second, or Foreign, Language may be a fruitful area on which to draw. We will review a particular aspect of second language pedagogy-learner strategies-and discuss their applicability to students who are starting to learn how to program. We will consider ways in which these strategies might be useful to support learning programming at this level.     

The present state and future trends of blended learning in workplace learning settings across five countries

This article reports survey findings related to the current status and future trends of blended learning in workplace learning settings from diverse cultures. This particular survey was conducted of 674 training and human resource development professionals from five different countries, mostly from the Asia-Pacific region (i.e., China, South Korea, Taiwan, United States, and the United Kingdom). The results show that blended learning will become a popular delivery method in the future of workplace learning not only in Western countries but also in Asian countries. Still, the respondents indicated that there were several barriers to blended learning; one of the most noticeable issues was their lack of understanding of blended learning. There is a pressing need, therefore, to provide practitioners with guidance on how to implement blended learning in their organizations. Additionally, among the countries surveyed, the results of the present study revealed that there were significant differences in the current level of adoption of blended learning, the respondents’ attitudes toward and perceptions of blended learning, and the content areas taught by blended learning. Respondents’ predictions related to emerging instructional strategies, technologies, and evaluation techniques for blended learning are also reported.     

Does blended instruction enhance English language learning in developing countries? Evidence from Mexico

Despite steady investment in English language education made by developing countries over the past few decades, results continue to be constrained by lack of high-quality instructors and language learning resources. Thus, using technology in language instruction has increasingly been recognized as a potential approach for addressing these constraints. This study uses administrative data from a large public university in Mexico to examine the impact of a technology-enhanced blended program on students' English course grades and course completion rates. Specifically, we focus on a campus-wide policy change in all compulsory English language courses that replaces half of the traditional face-to-face class time with an interactive online learning environment developed by a leading technology-mediated English language learning and assessment provider. Our results suggest that, compared to traditional face-to-face instruction, blended learning had a significant, positive impact on students' course grades and course completion rates. In addition, the enrollment-teacher ratio increased after replacing half of the face-to-face instructional time with online learning, suggesting that blended learning environments hold promise for providing high-quality and cost-effective language instruction.     

Integrating collaborative PBL with blended learning to explore preservice teachers’ development of online learning communities

This study integrated collaborative problem-based learning (collaborative PBL) with blended learning to explore the emerging process and function of online learning communities among preservice teachers. Thirty-two preservice teachers participated in a 16-week instruction program. Analyses of online group discussions and portfolios found that (a) the integrated approach facilitated the preservice teachers’ formation of online learning communities; (b) the preservice teachers’ online learning communities emerged via four stages: motivation and acquaintance, socialization and belongingness, information exchange and consensus, and tacit understanding and development; and (c) six factors influenced the development of the preservice teachers’ online learning communities.     

Implementing blended self-managed action learning for digital entrepreneurs in higher education

We report upon implementing blended self-managed action learning (SMAL) within graduate and postgraduate courses in digital entrepreneurship. In four out of five cases, we found that SMAL was highly motivating to our learners and integrated well with a blended and flexible approach to learning. We report a case where a SMAL set broke down due to the presence of a charismatic learner who was visibly biased against SMAL and questioned its utility from the outset. We suggest that the risk of similar breakdowns might be managed by developing a questionnaire to pre-assess participants' readiness for action learning and increasing the level or support during SMAL set meetings. While SMAL did not give rise to independent action learning sets after the courses, we were surprised and encouraged to find that learners instigated independent virtual learning networks, which flourished for up to a year after the courses. On the basis of this experiment we suggest that blended and fully virtual SMAL are worthy of further investigation in higher education and beyond.     

Reflective learning in a Chinese MBA programme: scale assessment and future recommendations

The purpose of this study was twofold: (1) to use Chinese MBA students to validate the expanded reflective learning continuum and address the concerns raised in this regard in business education; (2) to determine whether the continuum concept holds true in a non-western culture and whether the reflective learning continuum remains a powerful force in MBA students’ learning outcomes in China. A total of 232 MBA students in China completed a three-page questionnaire that included all question items set out in the work of Peltier, Hay, and Drago. The translation/back-translation technique was employed in order to achieve a semantic, conceptual and normative equivalent relative to the original English version. The results yielded by this study and its predecessors suggest that (1) reflective learning is a multi-dimensional concept in nature, and (2) the reflective learning continuum could take on a similar picture across various social and cultural contexts. This study extends the work of Peltier et al. on reflective learning continuum in the context of Chinese higher education. Given the increased need for internationalisation of business education and the paucity of studies examining educational needs across cultures and nationalities, the results drawn from the Chinese MBA student sample provide valuable information about the degree to which Chinese MBA students take on problem-based and explorative approaches from school.