A Longitudinal Study of School Belonging and Academic Motivation Across High School

This longitudinal study examined how school belonging changes over the years of high school, and how it is associated with academic achievement and motivation. Students from Latin American, Asian, and European backgrounds participated (N = 572; age span = 13.94–19.15 years). In ninth grade, girls' school belonging was higher than boys'. Over the course of high school, however, girls' school belonging declined, whereas boys' remained stable. Within‐person longitudinal analyses indicated that years in which students had higher school belonging were also years in which they felt that school was more enjoyable and more useful, above and beyond their actual level of achievement. Results highlight the importance of belonging for maintaining students' academic engagement during the teenage years.     

Rethinking Early Elementary Grade Retention: Examining Long-Term Academic and Psychosocial Outcomes

Abstract

Grade retention, the practice of requiring a student to remain in the same grade the following year, disproportionately affects students with sociodemographic risk and facing academic challenges. Each year, the United States spends $20 billion on retention and two million children are retained. Extant studies examining early elementary grade retention generally focus on short-term effects and academic outcomes; little is known about long-term effects on academic and psychosocial outcomes in the middle grades. The current study uses propensity score methods and a national data set to estimate the effect of first- or second-grade retention on academic achievement and psychosocial outcomes six or seven years later. By comparing students who were retained to students who were similar on observed characteristics but otherwise promoted, we generate causal estimates that show a statistically significant negative effect of retention on reading achievement. Significant and robust effects were not consistently detected for other academic or psychosocial outcomes. As grade retention is a widely used educational intervention, implications for its effectiveness from a policy and practice perspective are discussed.     

Bidirectional Relations Between Text Reading Prosody and Reading Comprehension in the Upper Primary School Grades: A Longitudinal Perspective

The purpose of this study was to examine the directionality of the relationship between text reading prosody and reading comprehension in the upper grades of primary school. We compared 3 theoretical possibilities: Two unidirectional relations from text reading prosody to reading comprehension and from reading comprehension to text reading prosody and a bidirectional relation between text reading prosody and reading comprehension. Further, we controlled for autoregressive effects and included decoding efficiency as a measure of general reading skill. Participants were 99 Dutch children, followed longitudinally, from 4th to 6th grade. Structural equation modeling showed that the bidirectional relation provided the best fitting model. In 5th grade, text reading prosody was related to prior decoding and reading comprehension, whereas in 6th grade, reading comprehension was related to prior text reading prosody. As such, the results suggest that the relation between text reading prosody and reading comprehension is reciprocal but dependent on grade level.     

Children's Classroom Peer Relationships and Early School Attitudes: Concurrent and Longitudinal Associations

The purpose of this study was to further explore the linkage between children's early school attitudes and interpersonal features of the classroom, including children's relationships with classmates and their perceptions of these relationships. Participants included 102 kindergarten children (M age = 5.8 years) who were interviewed at the beginning and end of kindergarten to obtain measures of their school attitudes (i.e., school liking), classroom peer relationships (i.e., peer acceptance, mutual friendships), and peer relationship perceptions (i.e., perceived loneliness, peer support). Results showed that initial school liking was associated with all four measures of children's peer relationships; however, only the number of mutual friendships that children possessed in their classrooms predicted changes in school attitudes (gains) over time. Early school attitudes were linked to changes in children's peer perceptions; children who disliked school early in kindergarten were more likely to view classmates as unsupportive as the school year progressed. Results are discussed in terms of the potential impact that classroom peer relations may have on early school attitudes, and vice versa. Implications for educational policy are also considered.     

Examining the Validity of Behavioral Self-Regulation Tools in Predicting Preschoolers' Academic Achievement

Research Findings: The current study investigated the predictive utility of teacher-rated, observed, and directly assessed behavioral self-regulation skills to academic achievement in preschoolers. Specifically, this study compared how a teacher report (the Child Behavior Rating Scale), an observer report (the Observed Child Engagement Scale), and a direct assessment (the Head–Toes–Knees–Shoulders task) relate to early math and literacy skills. The sample consisted of 247 children from 31 preschool classrooms. Trained research assistants observed a subsample of 104 children. Results indicated significant positive relationships for teacher-rated and directly assessed behavioral self-regulation for early math and literacy skills. Teacher ratings were the strongest predictors of literacy, and the direct assessment emerged as the strongest predictor of math. Observed behavioral self-regulation was not significantly related to either academic domain. Practice or Policy: Discussion focuses on the domain specificity of behavioral self-regulation assessments and the importance of utilizing multiple measurement tools when assessing behavioral self-regulation and its relations to early achievement.     

Visual-Motor Integration,Executive Functions,and Academic Achievement: Concurrent and Longitudinal Relations in Late Elementary School

ABSTRACT

Research Findings: Using data from a short-term longitudinal study of 343 third-, fourth-, and fifth-grade students, we investigated visual-motor integration (VMI) skills as a predictor of direct assessments of executive functions (EFs) and academic achievement. This is the first study to investigate relations among these three constructs in late elementary school. VMI predicted change in EFs from fall to spring. EFs and VMI were independently associated with math and English/language arts standardized test scores. When controlling for earlier achievement test scores, EFs—but not VMI—remained a significant predictor of later academic achievement. Results indicate that VMI may help support the continued development of EFs in late elementary school, but EFs appear to be comparatively more important as a direct predictor of continued academic development during this age period. Practice or Policy: VMI is a complex ability that combines fine motor coordination (an aspect of school readiness) and visual-spatial reasoning skills. VMI has been identified as an influential predictor of early academic development, but it has been neglected in middle childhood studies. Our results suggest that VMI remains important through the end of elementary school for the continued development of children’s EFs and therefore merits more attention from researchers and educators.     

Head Start Children: School Mobility and Achievement in the Early Grades

Abstract

The relationship of 2 school mobility indices (school changes and parental perceptions of mobility effects) to 2nd-grade academic achievement was examined. The sample comprised 90 children who had attended Head Start and had made the transition to public school. Data also were obtained from the children's mothers. School mobility was defined as the number of school transfers over 3 years (kindergarten to Grade 2). Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that frequent school changes in the primary grades were related to lower achievement levels even after controlling for the child's sex and the effects of achievement prior to the school moves.     

Patterns of Early Reading and Social Skills Associated With Academic Success in Elementary School

Research Findings: Researchers and policymakers emphasize that early childhood is a critical developmental stage with the potential to impact academic and social-emotional outcomes (G. Conti &; J. J. Heckman, 2012 Conti , G. , &; Heckman , J. J. ( 2012 ). The economics of child well-being (No. w18466) . Washington , DC : National Bureau of Economic Research .[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]; J. J. Heckman, 2012 Heckman , J. J. ( 2012 ). The case for investing in young children . In B. Falk (Ed.), Defending childhood: Keeping the promise of early education (pp. 235 – 242 ). New York , NY : Teachers College Press . [Google Scholar]; R. Murnane, I. Sawhill, &; C. Snow, 2012 Murnane , R. , Sawhill , I. , &; Snow , C. ( 2012 ). Literacy challenges for the twenty-first century: Introducing the issue . The Future of Children , 22 ( 2 ), 3 – 15 .[Crossref], [PubMed] , [Google Scholar]). Although there is substantial evidence that children's early prereading skills predict later academic achievement (K. M. La Paro &; R. C. Pianta, 2000 La Paro , K. M. , &; Pianta , R. C. ( 2000 ). Predicting children's competence in the early school years: A meta-analytic review . Review of Educational Research , 70 , 443 – 484 .[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), there have been mixed findings regarding the contribution of early social skills to later achievement (e.g., G. J. Duncan et al., 2007 Duncan , G. J. , Dowsett , C. J. , Claessens , A. , Magnuson , K. , Huston , A. C. , Klebanov , P. , … Brooks-Gunn , J. ( 2007 ). School readiness and later achievement . Developmental Psychology , 43 , 1428 – 1446 .[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Using data from the national Early Childhood Longitudinal Study–Kindergarten Cohort, we found that subgroups of children with a combination of low/average reading skills and higher levels of social skills (86% of the sample) in kindergarten performed better on later academic assessments than children with similar reading skills but lower levels of social skills during kindergarten. In contrast, children who were very strong early readers (14% of the sample), regardless of their level of social skills, performed similarly on the 5th-grade academic outcomes. Practice or Policy: Implications for early education and policy are discussed.     

Comparative Mathematical Language in the Elementary School: A Longitudinal Study

This paper examines the change in young children’s understanding of ‘equal’, ‘more’, ‘less’, and ‘between’, words commonly used in equivalent and non-equivalent situations, over a 3-year period. Seventy-six children participated in the longitudinal study. Each year they were asked to share their understanding of these four words. Past research has indicated that many children have limited understanding of ‘equal’ as quantitative sameness. The results of this research suggested that many children also have limited understanding of ‘more’ and ‘less’ and that these understandings did not significantly change over the 3-year period.     

An Analysis of School Subject Preferences of Elementary School Children of the Middle Grades: Another Look

Abstract

Research has shown that genuiness, nonpossessive warmth, and accurate empathy are positively related to therapeutic outcome for neurotic and schizophrenic adults. The present study attempted to extend and clarify these findings with elementary school children. Thirty-five adult females volunteered to work individually with thirty-five children who were experiencing behavioral and academic difficulties. Early and late interviews were tape recorded and rated on each of three variables. Each helper and each child completed a relationship inventory. Late-rated nonpossessive warmth, late-rated accurate empathy, and the total scores on the children's relationship inventories were significantly related to positive behavioral change. Similar programs will need to find methods of raising the overall level of therapeutic conditions offered by the helpers.     

Relational Aggression and Academic Performance in Elementary School

To investigate the relationship between relational aggression and school performance, this study examined the relative and combined associations among relational aggression, overt aggression, and victimization and children's academic performance. Additionally this study examined the relative associations among relational and overt aggression and verbal and performance IQ. Participants in this study were a subset of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development. The study included 1,067 children (50% male) assessed during fourth and fifth grade. Results indicated that for girls, relational aggression was negatively associated with school performance, while statistically controlling for both victimization and overt aggression. For boys, overt aggression was negatively related with school performance. Additional results indicated that for both girls and boys, victimization was negatively associated with school performance.     

Physical Activity,Self-Regulation,and Early Academic Achievement in Preschool Children

Research Findings: The present study investigated whether active play during recess was associated with self-regulation and academic achievement in a prekindergarten sample. A total of 51 children in classes containing approximately half Head Start children were assessed on self-regulation, active play, and early academic achievement. Path analyses indicated that higher active play was associated with better self-regulation, which in turn was associated with higher scores on early reading and math assessments. Practice or Policy: Results point to the benefits of active play for promoting self-regulation and offer insight into possible interventions designed to promote self-regulation and academic achievement.     

Asset Ownership and Academic Achievement Among Youth in Ghana: Examining Associations Based on Asset Type and Academic Subject

This cross-sectional study examined the relationships between asset type and academic achievement among Ghanaian junior high school students. Results suggest that the positive relationship between asset ownership and academic achievement depends on the type of asset and academic subject. Homeownership was positively and significantly associated with math achievement. Ownership of transport-related assets was positively and significantly associated with English achievement. Findings have implications for asset-building programs to promote academic proficiency and progress for all youth.     

小学高年级语文课堂提问现状与完善策略

课堂提问是构建高效课堂的基本方式之一,但当前高年级小学语文课堂提问存在一些问题。本文通过分析,阐述了当前小学语文课堂提问存在的学生积极性较差、课堂提问对象较少、老师对提问难度控制不当等问题;为提高小学语文课堂提问效率,提出了重视课堂提问评价的鼓励作用、重视提问对象的差异性、重视课堂提问的引导作用等策略,希望有利于小学语文课堂提问效率的提高。     

Profiles of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations in Elementary School: A Longitudinal Analysis

The authors used a person-centered, longitudinal approach to identify and evaluate naturally occurring combinations of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations among 490 third- through fifth-grade students. Cluster analysis revealed 3 groups, characterized by high levels of both motivations (high quantity): high intrinsic motivation but low extrinsic motivation (primarily intrinsic) and low intrinsic motivation but high extrinsic motivation (primarily extrinsic). Analyses of stability and change in cluster membership indicated that the primarily intrinsic cluster was most stable (76% stability) and the high-quantity cluster most precarious (45% stability) over the course of an academic year. Students in the primarily intrinsic cluster outperformed their peers in the other 2 clusters and showed the greatest increase in achievement over time.     

Extroversion as a Factor Conditioning AchieveMent in the Fifth and Sixth Grades of the Elementary School

Abstract

One-hundred-eighty-five hig-school junior and senior students were classified as underachievers, overachievers, and achievers, by percent lie rank positions on CEE11 scores and achievement tests In mathematics. An examination was made of the relationship of facilitating: and debilitating anxiety and four teacher motivation cues to the three levels of scholastic achievement. Girls were more sensitive than the hoys to the motive-arousing: cues provided by their teachers, yet differential sex and group reactions were reported In the perception of teacher cues. Facilitating as well as debilitating anxiety was a determining variable for both sexes on all three achieving groups.     

Teaching Across the Grades: Dispositions of Ideally Competent Teachers

ABSTRACT

The study of dispositions for effective teaching has become a key topic in education. Diverse characteristics, skills, and behaviors have been proposed as centrally important. Nevertheless, little work has been done on evaluating these disparate claims, or whether importance varies across primary and secondary teaching contexts. We address these issues by using a new instrument that incorporated a wide range and a large number of individual dispositions with an established methodology (the Q-sort; Block, 2008) that allows dispositions to be meaningfully ranked by importance and then compared across grade level. A diverse group of experienced teachers were consistent in their rankings, and their judgments showed both similarities and differences across grade level. We discuss theoretical and practical implications.     

Achievement Measures of School Effectiveness: Comparison of Model Stability Across Years

The purpose of this study was to determine the feasibility of combining different test types (criterion-referenced and norm-referenced) in a composite school achievement score to be used in a model for school effectiveness classification. The cross-year stability and within-model consistency of the composite was compared to models using subcomposite, overall scores for both the criterion- referenced and norm-referenced tests, subject-area scores (across grades), grade-level scores, and component scores for each grade. Stability of the different models across 2 years was determined by using the agreement ratio, kappa coefficient, and correlation of residuals (N = 361). The same statistical procedures were used to compute consistency across subsamples (N = 264). Results indicated that transforming and combining student-level scores of different test types, grade levels, and subject areas allows for a broader basis for judging schools and provides a school effectiveness model that is both consistent across subsamples and stable across years.