Stereotype Threat and Women's Performance in Physics

Stereotype threat (ST), which involves confirming a negative stereotype about one's group, is a factor thought to contribute to the gender gap in science achievement and participation. This study involved a quasi-experiment in which 312 US high school physics students were randomly assigned, via their classroom cluster, to one of three ST conditions. The conditions included an explicit ST condition, an implicit ST condition, and a nullified condition. Results indicated that males in all three conditions performed similarly on a set of physics problems. Females in the nullified condition outperformed females in the explicit ST condition and females in the implicit and explicit conditions performed similarly. Males performed better than females in the implicit and explicit ST conditions, but male and female performance on the physics problems was not significantly different in the nullified condition. The implications of these findings for physics instruction and future research on gender differences in physics and ST in science are discussed.     

The Roots of Stereotype Threat: When Automatic Associations Disrupt Girls' Math Performance

Although stereotype awareness is a prerequisite for stereotype threat effects (Steele & Aronson, 1995), research showed girls' deficit under stereotype threat before the emergence of math–gender stereotype awareness, and in the absence of stereotype endorsement. In a study including 240 six‐year‐old children, this paradox was addressed by testing whether automatic associations trigger stereotype threat in young girls. Whereas no indicators were found that children endorsed the math–gender stereotype, girls, but not boys, showed automatic associations consistent with the stereotype. Moreover, results showed that girls' automatic associations varied as a function of a manipulation regarding the stereotype content. Importantly, girls' math performance decreased in a stereotype‐consistent, relative to a stereotype‐inconsistent, condition and automatic associations mediated the relation between stereotype threat and performance.     

A Stereotype Threat Account of Boys' Academic Underachievement

Three studies examined the role of stereotype threat in boys' academic underachievement. Study 1 (children aged 4–10, n = 238) showed that girls from age 4 years and boys from age 7 years believed, and thought adults believed, that boys are academically inferior to girls. Study 2 manipulated stereotype threat, informing children aged 7–8 years (n = 162) that boys tend to do worse than girls at school. This manipulation hindered boys' performance on a reading, writing, and math test, but did not affect girls' performance. Study 3 counteracted stereotype threat, informing children aged 6–9 years (n = 184) that boys and girls were expected to perform similarly. This improved the performance of boys and did not affect that of girls.     

刻板印象威胁的研究及进展

刻板印象威胁指一定的文化对某些群体持有负性刻板印象,群体成员在特定情境下由于担心别人会以这种观念来判断他和对待他,同时担心自身的表现会印证这种刻板印象而产生的威胁感.文章综述了刻板印象威胁的提出,威胁的发生机制,影响威胁效应的因素以及如何减弱刻板印象威胁效应.刻板印象威胁效应的发生机制还需进一步认识;以后还可以探讨此威胁效应是否给被刻板者带来某些生物学上的改变;该效应指导教学实践还需做更多的实践研究.     

Understanding the Process of Stereotype Threat: A Review of Mediational Variables and New Performance Goal Directions

Stereotype threat is a situational experience in which an individual feels vulnerable and pressured by the possibility of confirming or being judged by a stereotype. This threatening experience leads to performance decrements, even among highly skilled individuals. This article chronicles empirically tested mechanisms for how stereotype threat negatively impacts performance outcomes. A review of relevant published investigations illustrate that a number of intuitive mediators have been suggested and tested, often with discouraging results. Thus, one objective of this article is to provide researchers with a comprehensive and straightforward account of such tested mechanisms to assist with future works. Indeed, there is much room for research in this area considering that to date, as measured, no individual mediator has completely explained the stereotype threat–poor performance relationship. As such, the second objective of this article is to propose a multiple mediator approach drawing from achievement goal theory. The Stereotyped Task Engagement Process Model is presented. This model hypothesizes that performance goal adoption can offer insights into the potential multiple processes involved in stereotype-threat effects on performance.     

Unleashing Latent Ability: Implications of Stereotype Threat for College Admissions

Social-psychological research conducted over the past 15 years provides compelling evidence that pervasive psychological threats are present in common academic environments—especially threats that originate in negative intellectual stereotypes—and that these threats undermine the real-world academic performance of non-Asian ethnic minority students and of women in math and science. As a consequence, common measures of academic performance, including both grades and test scores, systematically underestimate the intellectual ability of ethnic minority students and of women in quantitative fields (Walton & Spencer, 2009 Walton, G. M. and Spencer, S. J. 2009. Latent ability: Grades and test scores systematically underestimate the intellectual ability of negatively stereotyped students. Psychological Science,, 20,: 1132–1139. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). We review evidence for these psychological threats, discuss their implications for the meaning and interpretation of common performance measures used in important admissions decisions, and address their implications for the efforts of colleges and universities to create positive academic environments that allow all students to thrive.     

Six Dimensions of Parenting: A Motivational Model

Objective. A motivational conceptualization provided the basis for identifying 6 core features of parenting style (warmth, rejection, structure, chaos, autonomy support, and coercion) and constructing 2 measures to assess them (1 for parents and 1 for children). Design. Self-report data were collected from independent samples of parents (N = 1212, 645 mothers and 567 fathers) and adolescent children (N = 3,752). Results. Models of multiple (unipolar) dimensions provided a significantly better fit than traditional models of bipolar dimensions. Moreover, correlations among dimensions suggested that dimensions can be aggregated in several ways. Conclusion. The conceptual framework and measures can contribute to future work on parenting, including research designed to map the many constructs that describe parenting, and studies that explore how parenting style shapes child and adolescent outcomes.     

Stereotypes and the Achievement Gap: Stereotype Threat Prior to Test Taking

Stereotype threat is known as a situational predicament that prevents members of negatively stereotyped groups to perform up to their full ability. This review shows that the detrimental influence of stereotype threat goes beyond test taking: It impairs stereotyped students to build abilities in the first place. Guided by current theory on stereotype threat processes and boundary conditions, this review integrates findings on test taking, disidentification, and learning. A new three-stage account of stereotype threat is proposed that includes stereotype threat effects on both ability and performance. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.     

刻板印象威胁发生机制:认知神经研究进展

刻板印象威胁发生机制的认知神经科学研究发现,女性数学刻板印象抑制了受威胁个体下前额皮质、左下顶叶皮质、两侧角回等数学学习时所用脑区的激活,激活了与情绪加工有关的脑区扣带前回腹侧;刻板印象威胁使受威胁个体终止对其学业表现的监控,进而从学业表现中脱离出来;刻板印象威胁导致受威胁个体对自我控制进行不恰当地调节,从而把其影响外溢到与当前刻板印象无关的任务中.未来研究应加强刻板印象威胁影响社会任务机制的认知神经科学研究,进一步整合刻板印象威胁发生机制的行为研究与认知神经研究各自获得的成果.     

A Step Beyond Univision Evaluations Using a Systems Model of Performance Improvement

The article examines three views of performance improvement-scientific management, instructional design, and systems thinking, Each provides a unique view of performance improvement and specific roles for evaluation. Envisioning performance improvement from a single view may be insufficient for evaluating the performance improvement situations found in today's dynamic organisations. The articie provides an integrated definition of performance and a synthesis, model, the Systems Model of Performance.     

农村留守儿童刻板印象与威胁效应实验研究

为了研究农村留守儿童刻板印象威胁效应是否存在,以问卷法、访谈法和文献法获取社会人员关于农村留守儿童的外显刻板印象特征词语,以单类内隐联想测验证明农村留守儿童外显刻板印象与内隐刻板印象的一致性,以字母记忆测试和数学等式判断测试来验证农村留守儿童刻板印象威胁效应的存在。结论如下:(1)社会人员对农村留守儿童存在刻板印象,消极的刻板印象多于积极的刻板印象;在消极的刻板印象中,社会人员偏向关注农村留守儿童学习方面的消极特征。(2)社会人员对农村留守儿童积极刻板印象词语的反应显著快于积极非刻板印象的词语,消极刻板印象词语的反应显著慢于消极非刻板印象的词语,表明社会人员对农村留守儿童外显刻板印象与内隐刻板印象相一致。(3)在字母记忆测试中,实验组反应时慢于控制组,正确率低于控制组,反映出农村留守儿童刻板印象威胁效应存在;在数学等式判断测试中,实验组在反应时和正确率上与控制组差异明显,同样反映出农村留守儿童刻板印象威胁效应存在;同时,在上述两种测试中,农村留守女童在反应时与正确率上均优于农村留守男童,性别在行为表现上的差异明显。     

Parents' Involvement in Children's Schooling: A Multidimensional Conceptualization and Motivational Model

This study had 2 goals. The first was to examine a multidimensional conceptualization of parent involvement in children's schooling, defined as the allocation of resources to the child's school endeavors. A second goal was to evaluate a model in which children's motivational resources (i.e., perceived competence, control understanding, and self-regulation) are mediators between parent involvement and children's school performance. 300 11–14-year-old children and their teachers participated. Factor analyses of a set of parent involvement measures supported the hypothesized 3 dimensions of parent involvement: behavior, intellectual/cognitive, and personal. Path analyses revealed indirect effects of mother behavior and intellectual/cognitive involvement on school performance through perceived competence and control understanding, and indirect effects of father behavior on school performance through perceived competence. The results argue against a unidimensional understanding of parent involvement and support the view of the child as an active constructor of his or her school experience.     

The Motivational Impact of School-Based Performance Awards

This article examines the ways in which school-based performance award (SBPA) programs motivate teachers to modify or improve teaching practice. Qualitative and survey data from SBPA programs in Kentucky, Charlotte-Mecklenburg (North Carolina), Douglas County (Colorado), and Maryland suggest that SBPA programs motivate teachers largely by creating conditions that increase intrinsic rewards and focus teacher efforts, such as opportunities for professional collaboration, feedback on student performance, a clear goal focus, and alignment of organizational resources. Depending on the specific design, SBPA programs can also have negative consequences, such as increased teacher stress.     

基于ARCS动机设计模式的成人学习动机策略初探

ARCS动机设计模式是教学设计中学习动机的激励模型。虽然成人学习者的学习动机具有主动性等特点,但是大部分成人学习者在其学习过程中,需要正确的引导和激励,从而增强学习动机。文章基于ARCS动机设计模式理论,结合成人学习者的动机特点,对成人学习的动机策略进行了初步探讨。     

强制实际履行规则下无效率合同的履行威胁问题

环境的变化可能使履行合同不再符合效率的要求.但当事人此时可能仍会有威胁实际履行合同的动机,希望藉此提高在违约谈判中的交易能力,得到更多的合作剩余.有些威胁是可信的,有些威胁是不可信的,可信的原告威胁会增加过度补偿的风险,而可信的被告威胁则具有相反的效果.公平和效率要求阻止原告的威胁,法律可以通过赋予实际履行命令不可转让性等方法来实现此目的.     

民间叙事中的交友范型：俗语故事“路遥知马力”解析

俗语故事是我国特有的一种民间叙事作品,凝结着我国历代民众的人生经验,隐含着深刻的生活哲理。“路遥知马力”故事以一种寓言意味,融注了我国民众对人际交往的诸多思考,表达了我国民众复杂的交友观念。故事指代的并非是一种交友范型,而是涵盖了不同层面,不同文化观念所认同的多种理想的人际交往模式,以多向性话语阐释了民间社会对“朋友”这一概念的深刻理解。     

Motivational Orientation, Error Monitoring, and Academic Performance in Middle Childhood: A Behavioral and Electrophysiological Investigation

ABSTRACT— Previous research suggests that academic motivation orientation relates to students' causal interpretations about academic outcomes and their emotional reactions to those outcomes. The current study examines how student motivation may relate to certain neurophysiological systems that are thought to underlie the processing of successes and failures. In the cognitive neuroscience literature, the error-related negativity (ERN) in the event-related potential has been associated with error processing and the degree of an individual's emotional investment in his or her performance. The current study examined the relation between academic motivational characteristics and ERN amplitude during a speeded reaction time task in 3rd- to 5th-grade students ( n = 17). Intrinsically oriented students displayed larger amplitude ERN responses and made more internally directed attributions about their task performance. The findings suggest that students with high intrinsic orientation attribute performance to personal control and that their error-monitoring system is more strongly engaged by performance errors.     

学习风格和二语动机策略与英语成绩的相关性研究

学习风格和二语动机策略是学习者个体差异中的重要因素,学习风格经过多年研究积累已经成为成熟的理论,然而二语学习动机策略的研究尚处于起步阶段,是研究者关注的一个新研究领域。研究从认知心理学角度出发,对新形势下二语习得中学习风格和二语动机策略进行探究,结合大学英语成绩进行相关性实证研究,以期以定性和定量的综合性研究方法为该领域提供一定的成果贡献,并对大学英语教学方面提供一定引导。     

A Collaborative Substance Abuse Model for Counselors in Training: Knowledge and Practicum Experiences

A school-based substance abuse training model for counselors was sponsored by a federal grant and designed by a counselor education department. The program was successful in training counselors to design and implement prevention and intervention programs in the school setting.