Postsecondary attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and deliberate practice: Study time,study quality,and self-perceptions

The current study examined study habits of postsecondary students with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) through the theoretical context of deliberate practice. The responses of participants with and without ADHD were compared on a survey of study time, study quality, and self-perceptions of study habits, as well as a measure of test anxiety. Groups were equivalent on reports of study time and time spent in other activities, percentage of classes they attend, use of conducive study environments, and planning of studying. Despite similar study behaviors, ADHD participants were more likely to feel unprepared for tests, reported significantly higher test anxiety, and had lower grade point averages. Regardless of ADHD status, the majority of study participants were not implementing deliberate practice behaviors, with the exception of class attendance, and study times fell far below recommended levels. Findings provided evidence that emulating the study behaviors of peers is not sufficient for students with ADHD to experience similar outcomes.     

Family process and peer deviance influences on adolescent aggression: longitudinal effects across early and middle adolescence

Beginning in sixth grade at an average age of 11.9 years, 416 adolescents and their parents participated in 4 waves of data collection involving family observations and multiple‐reporter assessments. Ecological theory and the process‐person‐context‐time (PPCT) model guided the hypotheses and analyses. Lagged, growth curve models revealed that family hostility and peer deviance affiliation predicted adolescent aggression in the subsequent year. Family warmth played only a minor role in protecting against adolescent aggression. In hostile or low‐warmth families, peer deviance affiliation linked to a declining aggression trajectory consistent with the arena of comfort hypothesis. The longitudinal findings suggest a nonadditive, synergistic interplay between family and peer contexts across time in adding nuance to understanding the adolescent aggression.     

Gender, adult structuring of activities, and social behavior in middle childhood

The study was designed to test the relations among gender, adult-provided activity structure, and social behavior for children in middle childhood. Adult-provided structure was defined as verbally presented rules, guidelines, suggestions, and modeling. Children aged 7-11 years attended a 1-week summer day camp in which activities characterized by high or low adult structure were available. As predicted, girls spent more time in highly structured activities, whereas boys spent more time in low-structure activities. Once in high-structure activities, however, both genders displayed high rates of adult-directed bids for recognition, leadership attempts, and compliance and low rates of peer interaction. In low-structure activities, children directed high rates of leadership and other social behaviors to same-sex peers. Children who chose high-structure activities most often were also most likely to interact with adults in those activities. Those who chose low-structure activities showed the highest rates of interaction with male peers. Sex-typed personality attributes were not related to activity choice. The results are interpreted in a framework encompassing the interactions of "person" attributes, environmental variables, and behavior.     

Peer relations across contexts: individual-network homophily and network inclusion in and after school

Peer relations across 2 contexts (in school and after school) were examined for 577 participants, approximately 12 years old, from 3 middle schools in Milan, Italy. The primary research questions were: Do peer networks from different contexts uniquely contribute to explaining variance in individual behavior? Do measures of peer preference and peer network inclusion across contexts uniquely contribute to explaining individual depressive symptoms? Structural equation models showed that both the in-school and the after-school peer networks uniquely contributed to explaining variance in 2 types of individual problem behavior (in-school problem behavior, after-school delinquency), and that similarity with the 2 peer networks varied according to behaviors specific to each context and across gender. Finally, both in-school and after-school peer network inclusion contributed to explaining variance in depressive symptoms, after controlling for classroom peer preference.     

The two faces of adolescents' success with peers: adolescent popularity, social adaptation, and deviant behavior

This study assessed the hypothesis that popularity in adolescence takes on a twofold role, marking high levels of concurrent adaptation but predicting increases over time in both positive and negative behaviors sanctioned by peer norms. Multimethod, longitudinal data, on a diverse community sample of 185 adolescents (13 to 14 years), addressed these hypotheses. As hypothesized, popular adolescents displayed higher concurrent levels of ego development, secure attachment, and more adaptive interactions with mothers and best friends. Longitudinal analyses supported a popularity-socialization hypothesis, however, in which popular adolescents were more likely to increase behaviors that receive approval in the peer group (e.g., minor levels of drug use and delinquency) and decrease behaviors unlikely to be well received by peers (e.g., hostile behavior with peers).     

Dynamic patterns of time use in adolescence

Patterns of time use are tangible representations of individual identity and the meaning of age groups in the life course. How do young people allocate their time to multiple domains of involvement, including the school, workplace, family, and peer group? Drawing on longitudinal data from the Youth Development Study (N = 1,010), a person-centered analytic strategy was used to describe configurations of time use through the high school years. Over half of the students were engaged in many domains, although a substantial percentage of students focused their time on one or two domains outside the school. Students who were highly engaged in multiple domains tended to remain so across grade levels, whereas students focused on one or two domains frequently changed their commitments. Plans for school, grade point average, future orientations that emphasize marriage and good citizenship, and gender significantly predicted time-use patterns. These findings elucidate connections among school, work, and other contexts through the high school years.     

Stability, change, and correlates of the peer relationships of young children with mild developmental delays

The peer relationships of young children with mild developmental (cognitive) delays recruited at 4-6 years of age were examined in a longitudinal study across a 2-year period. Results revealed only modest increases in children's peer interactions, a high degree of intraindividual stability, and the existence of a poorly organized and conflict-prone pattern of peer interactions. Child cognitive and language levels as well as family stress and support were associated with children's peer interactions. A subgroup was identified of initially low interactors who were at especially high risk for future peer interaction problems. These findings further underscore the importance of designing and implementing early intervention programs in the area of peer relationships for children with mild developmental delays.     

Child Care and Children's Peer Interaction at 24 and 36 Months: The NICHD Study of Early Child Care

Data from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care were examined to determine how children's experiences in child care were related to peer competence at 24 and 36 months of age, after controlling for the effects of family and child characteristics. Peer competence was assessed using mother and caregiver ratings as well as observations of children with their peers in child care, and at 36 months from observations of dyadic play with a familiar peer. Consistent, albeit modest, relations were found between child-care experiences in the first 3 years of life and children's peer competencies. Positive, responsive caregiver behavior was the feature of child care most consistently associated with positive, skilled peer interaction in child care. Children with more experience in child-care settings with other children present were observed to be more positive and skilled in their peer play in child care, although their caregivers rated them as more negative with playmates. Children who spent more hours in child care were rated by their caregivers as more negative in peer play, but their observed peer play was not related to the quantity of care. Child-care experiences were not associated with peer competence as rated by mothers or as observed in dyadic play with a friend. Maternal sensitivity and children's cognitive and language competence predicted peer competence across all settings and informants, suggesting that family and child-care contexts may play different, but complementary roles in the development of early emerging individual differences in peer interaction.     

Peer rejection, aggressive or withdrawn behavior, and psychological maladjustment from ages 5 to 12: an examination of four predictive models

Findings yielded a comprehensive portrait of the predictive relations among children's aggressive or withdrawn behaviors, peer rejection, and psychological maladjustment across the 5-12 age period. Examination of peer rejection in different variable contexts and across repeated intervals throughout childhood revealed differences in the timing, strength, and consistency of this risk factor as a distinct (additive) predictor of externalizing versus internalizing problems. In conjunction with aggressive behavior, peer rejection proved to be a stronger additive predictor of externalizing problems during early rather than later childhood. Relative to withdrawn behavior, rejection's efficacy as a distinct predictor of internalizing problems was significant early in childhood and increased progressively thereafter. These additive path models fit the data better than did disorder-driven or transactional models.     

Family Dynamics, Preschoolers' Family Representations, and Preschool Peer Relationships

Most prior studies of family-peer linkages during the preschool years have asked how mothers' or fathers' parenting practices contribute to early social competence. However, recent evidence from studies of family group-level processes raise the possibility that coparenting and family group process may also influence early social competence. This study traces pathways between family group-level dynamics, preschoolers' family imagery, and peer behavior at nursery school, testing the hypothesis that children's perceptions of family anger and aggression provide a link (through mediation and other indirect connections) between family process and early peer behavior. 43 four-year-olds used a set of doll family figures to tell stories about happy, sad, mad and worried families, and participated in a puppet interview in which they answered questions about family activities and family anger. Children's projection of aggression into the doll family task and discomfort during the puppet interview were each related to both parent-child and family-level dynamics. Family-level variables were also associated with observed social behavior at preschool, with effects strongest for boys. Pathways linking low levels of support and mutuality in the coparenting relationship to problematic peer relationships were indirect and mediated rather than direct, with children's family representations playing an intermediary role. By contrast, there was a direct pathway linking the family's affective climate to positive peer behavior; children from families showing warm, positive relations among all family members displayed more positive and prosocial peer behavior at school. We propose that studies of early peer competence could benefit from a broadened definition of family process and from the inclusion of information about how preschoolers conceive of relationship dynamics within the family.     

Children's Evaluations of Decision-Making Procedures in Peer, Family, and School Contexts

Children's evaluations of decision-making procedures were examined in applications in different social contexts. Seventy-two children evenly divided into three grade levels (grades 1 – 2, 3 – 4, 5 – 6) were administered a structured interview requiring them to evaluate three decision-making procedures (consensus, majority rule, and authority-based) embedded in three social contexts (peer group, family, and school classroom) and to select the most appropriate decision-making procedure for two specific decisions: one expected to pull for procedures emphasizing children's autonomous decision making, and one expected to pull for adult authority. Judgments of decision-making procedures at all grade levels did not show a heteronomous acceptance of adult authority but rather were influenced by social context and type of decision. In general, consensus was preferred in peer and family contexts and authority-based procedures were preferred for school decisions about curriculum. Older children were more likely than younger children to consider how children's limited knowledge and competence may constrain their autonomous decision making.     

Psychosocial Status of Adolescents with Learning Disabilities With and Without Comorbid Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

Some researchers suggest that having a learning disability (LD) may act as a risk factor, increasing the likelihood that adolescents experience more negative outcomes in many areas of their lives. However, researchers have yet to examine in one study how having LD with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is related to a comprehensive set of psychosocial variables across a diverse set of domains (e.g., peer, family, school, intrapersonal). The purpose of the present study was to address that limitation by comparing the perceptions of adolescents with LD (N= 230), with comorbid LD/ADHD (N= 92), and without LD or ADHD (N= 322) regarding their academic orientation, temperament, well‐being, loneliness, parental relationships, victimization, activities, and friendships. Results are consistent with the hypothesis that LD may indeed act as a risk factor increasing the likelihood of more negative outcomes. The results also indicate that for some psychosocial variables this likelihood may be increased in adolescents with comorbid LD/ADHD. The findings have important implications for stakeholders concerned about supporting adolescents with LD with and without comorbid ADHD.     

School Adjustment in Sixth Graders: Parenting Transitions, Family Climate, and Peer Norm Effects

This study examined whether sixth graders' (mean age = 11.86 years) adjustment to the school context (assessed by grades, achievement scores, and disruptive behavior) was affected by factors from both the family context (represented by students' reports of the number of parenting transitions experienced as well as current levels of supervision, acceptance, autonomy granting, and conflict in the family) and the peer context (represented by students' perceptions of peer norms supporting academic excellence). School adjustment was related to the number of parenting transitions experienced, family climate, and peer norms as well as to higher-order relations involving family climate and peer norms such that ( a ) high grade point averages occurred at only moderate levels of family supervision, ( b ) achievement scores were positively related to supervision at only low levels of family autonomy granting, and ( c ) grade point average was positively related to peer norms at only high levels of family acceptance.     

Children's attitudes towards ADHD,depression and learning disabilities

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), depression and general learning disabilities (LD) are common difficulties for British primary school children. It has been found that characteristics associated with these difficulties can result in negative attitudes and stigma from other children, causing problems with peer relationships. Furthermore, problematic peer relations can intensify the difficulties associated with these disorders. Packages such as ‘Tackling Stigma: A Practical Toolkit’ aim to combat stigma in schools. However, these packages have not been based on evidence regarding children's attitudes towards different disorders. This study aims to explore children's attitudes towards ADHD, depression and LD from a conative (measure of social distance) and cognitive (measure of positive or negative attributes ascribed to a person) perspective. Participants were 273 children (M= 9.2 years). Vignettes were used to describe a child with ADHD, depression, or LD or a ‘normal’ child. The Shared Activities Questionnaire was utilised to assess conative attitudes, and the Adjective Checklist was utilised to assess cognitive attitudes. Results showed that children generally displayed more negative attitudes to vignettes describing mental health difficulties (MHD) (ADHD and depression) than LD. Children had more negative attitudes towards the ADHD (externalising disorder) vignette than the depression vignette (internalising disorder). Younger children had more positive conative attitudes than older children. Those who had previous contact with children with ADHD, depression and LD had more positive attitudes. These findings can enhance current stigma reduction interventions through contributing a deeper understanding of children's attitudes towards the most common MHD and LD in childhood.     

Social contexts of learning literate language: The role of varied, familiar, and close peer relationships

Two prominent theories in evolutionary biology have stressed the role of social contexts in the evolution of primate cognition. One theory holds that cognition evolved in the context of individuals having to keep track of their interactions with a variety of conspecifics. In the other theory, cognition evolved in the contexts of familiar and close social relationships. In this paper, we present two experiments examining the effects of varied, familiar, and close social contacts on preschool children's literate language and story re-reading. We hypothesized, based on developmental evolutionary theory, that closeness, in the form of increased familiarity and friendship, would maximize children's expression of emotional terms, conflict/resolution cycles, collaborative responses, literate language, and story re-readings. In Study 1, children were exposed to one of two conditions. In the more familiar condition, initially unfamiliar children interacted with the same peer across four separate observations. In the less familiar, varied condition, a focal child interacted with a different unfamiliar peer on four separate occasions. Consistent with predictions, children in the more familiar condition increased their use of emotional terms and literate language and story re-reading with time. In Study 2, a familiar group (as defined in Study 1) was compared with children in bestfriend dyads. As predicted, friends outperformed familiar peers initially, but between-group differences decreased across time while children's performance in the familiar group increased across time. Results are discussed in terms of the role of familiarity in the evolution of cooperation and cognition.     

An investigation of the stability and variability in young children's self-regulated learning behaviors in kindergarten

The authors examined the relative stability and variability of self-regulated learning (SRL) in kindergartners across various contexts (teacher-directed activities, small-group work, and independent work). They assessed the role of temperament and context on children's use of SRL while seeking to identify if there are optimal contexts for promoting SRL in particular children. The results revealed that although temperament was not related to SRL, children's regulation strategy usage was heavily dependent on context, contradicting the idea that children are either high or low self-regulators. The relative stability of SRL varied by child, with some children showing more sensitivity to context than did others. Optimal contexts for eliciting SRL also differed by children, with some children exhibiting elevated regulation during small-group activities and others during teacher-directed activities.     

Concurrent and Longitudinal Relations between Children's Playground Behavior and Social Preference, Victimization, and Bullying

Prior research with contrived play groups suggests that how children interact with one another can influence their social relationships, but few studies have been carried out to determine if this is the case in naturalistic settings. This study examined the concurrent and longitudinal links between four observational measures of 8- to 9-year-old children's (N = 89) playground behaviors/peer contacts (Alone, Conversation, Group Size, and Network) and three sociometric measures of their peer relationships (Social Preference, Bully, and Victim). The latter were assessed at 2 points within a school year, the first corresponding with the playground observations and the second 5 months later. Several of the concurrent correlations were found to be significant. For boys, Group Size was positively correlated with Bully Score and Social Preference Score, but negatively correlated with Victim Score; and time Alone was positively correlated with Victim Score. For girls, time Alone was positively correlated with Victim Score; Network was negatively correlated with Bully Score but positively correlated with Social Preference Score; and Group Size was positively correlated with Social Preference Score. The longitudinal analyses indicated that for boys, elevated levels of time Alone and, separately, Conversation, predicted the highest increases in Victim Score. For girls, low levels of time Alone predicted the sharpest increases in Social Preference Score. There was also some marginally significant evidence, p < .06, that among girls, high levels of time Alone predicted the greatest increases in Bully Score, and high levels of Conversation predicted the greatest increases in Social Preference Score. The theoretical and practical importance of these links between children's nonaggressive playground behaviors and their emerging peer relationships are discussed.     

Risk behaviors and resiliency within physically abused adolescents

OBJECTIVE: This study examines the relationship between physical abuse and several risk behaviors, and thriving behaviors, and the relationship between potential protective factors and engagement in risk and thriving behaviors among victims of physical abuse. Three categories of potential protective factors were examined: (1) individual characteristics, (2) family processes, and (3) extra-familial factors. We expected that high levels of protective factors would reduce engagement in risk behaviors (i.e., alcohol use, tobacco use, drug use, sexual activity, antisocial behavior, attempted suicide, and purging) among abused adolescents. RESULTS: Across all the risk behaviors, abused adolescents reported a higher frequency of engagement than non-abused adolescents. Several protective factors were identified for the seven risk behaviors. Peer group characteristics was a significant predictor in all seven of the logistic regressions, followed by positive school climate (six models), religiosity (five models), other adult support (five models), family support (four models), view of the future (two models), and involvement in extra-curricular activities (two models). The variance accounted for by the models ranged from 2% (risk behavior of purging) to 26% (risk behavior of alcohol use and antisocial behavior). CONCLUSIONS: The findings indicate that, with the exception of sexual activity, the majority of abused adolescents were not engaging in risk behaviors; however, significantly more abused adolescents were engaging in risk behaviors than their non-abused counterparts. In addition, that protective factors were found to exist at various levels of the adolescents' ecology has strong implications for practice.     

Adolescents’ interest experience in daily life in and across family and peer contexts

This study examined daily experiences of interest in and across the social contexts of family and in- and out-of-school peers. Forty-two Dutch adolescents, aged 13–15 years, provided us with 2 weeks of experience sampling data on their engagement in interesting topics and activities throughout their daily lives. Findings show that adolescent daily life included a diverse range of parallel interests. School-related interests made up a substantial part of adolescents’ daily lives, challenging the idea of mere disengagement of secondary school students in academics. Findings also show that some interests are strongly bound to a specific context, while others appear across family and peer contexts. This indicates how multiple contexts can simultaneously feed interests, something that calls for further across-context research of interest development.

     

Sluggish cognitive tempo and impairment: The role of lifestyle factors

The purpose of this study was to assess whether sluggish cognitive tempo (SCT) behaviors were associated with a unique impairment profile for college students after accounting for lifestyle (sleep, substance use, health) and mental health factors (attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder [ADHD], anxiety, depression). A general sample of 910 undergraduate students completed several measures via online survey. Most participants were female (64.9%) and were Caucasian (60.7%), with an average age of 19.41 years. Students who endorsed elevated SCT behaviors reported significantly more impairment compared to students who reported low levels of SCT behaviors. However, regression analyses suggested that SCT behaviors do not account for significant amounts of unique impairment after controlling for related mental health (ADHD, anxiety, depression) and lifestyle variables (sleep, health, substance use). The lack of impairment associated uniquely with SCT behaviors suggests that SCT may serve as a construct underlying many variables, rather than standing independently as a distinct disorder.