Effects of a professional development program on classroom practices and outcomes for Latino dual language learners

A randomized, controlled study was conducted to assess the effects of the Nuestros Niños professional development program on classroom practices and child outcomes related to language development and early literacy skills in both English and Spanish. Fifty-five teachers and 193 Latino dual language learners (DLLs) enrolled in the North Carolina More at Four Pre-Kindergarten Program participated in the study. The content of the professional development program consisted of research-based instructional practices designed to complement the core curriculum and scaffold learning for DLLs, and the format included professional development institutes, individualized consultation, and community of practice meetings. The results showed that the intervention led to measurable improvements in both the overall quality of teachers’ language and literacy practices as well as those specific to working with Latino DLLs, and greater gains in children's phonological awareness skills in their primary language.     

The development and early care and education of dual language learners: Examining the state of knowledge

Early care and education (ECE) programs, policymakers and practitioners across the United States are facing the reality of the increase in the population of dual language learners (DLLs). To address these children's unique and varied characteristics and experiences, ECE programs find that they must adjust and adapt their efforts. However, there is limited evidence for early childhood strategies to support DLLs and limited understanding of DLLs’ development. There are increased accountability requirements for ECE programs to meet the needs of all children, including DLLs. This special section “The Development and Early Care and Education of Dual Language Learners: Examining the State of Knowledge” includes six articles reporting on the research activities of the Center for Early Care and Education Research – Dual Language Learners (CECER-DLL). The Center was federally funded to advance the research field to improve assessment, child care, and education for DLLs from birth through five years of age. This introduction and commentary discusses the most relevant findings from the set of critical reviews of literature and the secondary analysis of the Early Childhood Longitudinal Survey-Birth Cohort conducted by the Center. Also, the major methodological challenges and research gaps found in the literature reviewed, across topic areas, are presented and recommendations for future directions to advance research on the development and early care and education of DLLs are provided.     

The cognitive development of young dual language learners: A critical review

Dual language exposure and bilingualism are relatively common experiences for children. The present review set out to synthesize the existing research on cognitive development in bilingual children and to identify the gaps and the methodological concerns present in the existing research. A search of major databases for research conducted with typically developing, preschool-age dual language learners between 2000 and 2013 yielded 102 peer-reviewed articles. The existing evidence points to areas of cognitive development in bilingual children where findings are robust or inconclusive, and reveals variables that influence performance. The present review also identifies areas for future research and methodological limitations.     

The effects of developing English language and literacy on Spanish reading comprehension

In this longitudinal study, the cross-language transfer from second language (L2) to first language (L1) was examined among Spanish-speaking English-language learners in an English intervention (Grades 1–3) in the southwest United States. Path analysis revealed statistically significant transfers (ps < .05) for the treatment group from English reading comprehension to Spanish reading comprehension. English vocabulary and English grammar also had an indirect influence on Spanish reading comprehension through English reading comprehension. For the comparison group, no English to Spanish paths were statistically significant. We concluded that intervention activities in L2 influenced L1 reading even when L1 instructional time was reduced.     

Building the bridge as you walk on it: Didactic behaviors of elementary teachers in a dual language program

While there is evidence that the dual language model has the potential to raise the academic achievement of English language learners (ELLs), the policies mandated through the No Child Left Behind Act do not support maintenance of the student's heritage language which is an integral part of the model. Using symbolic interactionism as a framework, this study explored the experiences of dual language elementary teachers as they operate under the authority of current educational policy. The findings, presented as a concept model, reveal the didactic behaviors exhibited by teachers and suggest a dynamic process of negotiation is at work which informs their professional identities.     

The language and literacy development of young dual language learners: A critical review

The number of children living in the United States who are learning two languages is increasing greatly. However, relatively little research has been conducted on the language and literacy development of dual language learners (DLLs), particularly during the early childhood years. To summarize the extant literature and guide future research, a critical analysis of the literature was conducted. A search of major databases for studies on young typically developing DLLs between 2000 and 2011 yielded 182 peer-reviewed articles.     

Oral English language proficiency and reading mastery: The role of home language and school supports

The analysis of 21,409 participants of the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study–Kindergarten cohort focused on home and school factors sought to understand the level of reading mastery that children experienced throughout elementary school and Grade 8 by relating home language use, timing of oral English language proficiency, and the provision of school-based English language learner services to reading mastery. Results confirm that non-English language use at home is associated with a decreased reading mastery at higher levels of proficiency in Grades 1 and 3, and is reduced to nonsignificance in Grades 5 and 8 with the inclusion of teacher and school factors. Also, the negative association between timing of oral English language proficiency and reading mastery is partially explained by teacher and school factors, particularly children's receipt of English language learner services. The findings provide support for policies that provide language services for language minority children and families during the transition to school and through the elementary school years.     

Supportive classrooms for Latino English language learners: Grit,ELL status,and the classroom context

Students' academic achievement is the result of the interplay between person-level and contextual factors (R. R: Greene, 2014; D. E. Hunt, 1975). Students perform better when classroom characteristics support their characteristics. The authors examine whether student perceptions of two classroom characteristics (care and control) fit with two Latino student characteristics (English language learner status and grit) in relation to their academic achievement. Using a sample of fourth- and fifth-grade Latino students from the Measures of Effective Teaching dataset (n = 3,272), the authors conducted a series of nested regression models with two- and three-way interactions between student characteristics and student perceptions of classroom characteristics. Findings revealed that grit is most strongly associated with Latino English language learners’ English/language arts achievement when students perceived that teachers used high levels of care and control. We conclude with implications for practitioners.     

English language acquisition and educational attainment at the end of secondary school

There has been relatively little empirical research on the impact of stage of fluency in English of bilingual pupils. However, this issue is increasingly important given growth in the bilingual school population in England of over one‐third between 1997 and 2004 to around 10% of the school population. This study evaluates the relationship between stage of English fluency and performance in public examinations at age 16 for all pupils within an inner London local education authority. Two methodological approaches are used to study the associations. The first looks at the context and the trend data for the case‐study local authority (LEA) in terms of languages spoken and the performance of bilingual pupils in schools. This is followed by a detailed statistical regression analysis to isolate the unique association between level of fluency in English and pupils' performance at age 16, after controlling for the effect of a range of other pupil and school background factors. The results confirm a strong relationship between stage of fluency in English and educational attainment, with the performance of bilingual pupils increasing as measured stage of fluency in English increases. Pupils in the early stages of fluency perform at very low levels, while bilingual pupils who are fully fluent in English perform better, on average, than English‐only speakers. However, the latter results are not due to bilingualism per se since the difference is no longer statistically significant after controlling for other measured pupil background variables. All EAL (English as an Additional Language) pupils make better than expected progress over the two years between age 14 and age 16. The final section questions the appropriateness of the Qualification and Curriculum Authority's (QCA) approach to the assessment of bilingual pupils, which contrasts with the local authority's good practice. Based on the findings of this study, we argue that there is a need to develop a national assessment strategy that better meets the needs of bilingual learners. The policy implications for national and local government and for school improvement practitioners are reviewed.     

The Importance of Principals Supporting Dual Language Education: A Social Justice Leadership Framework

Recent calls for social justice to be a key aspect of principal preparation have been made, but content related to the efficacy of dual language education has been a neglected area of educational leadership research, coursework, and principal preparation standards. We draw on scholarship focused on dual language education, social justice leadership, and the new Professional Standards for Educational Leadership to describe how principals can create dual language programs and lead for social justice and conclude with implications for preparation programs.     

Field Practice in La Mixteca: Transnational Teacher Education in the Service of Mexican Indigenous Students in U.S. Schools

Initial research has documented the ill treatment suffered by Mexican indigenous students in U.S. schools. Using a framework of transnational teacher education, we examined the impact of field practice in an indigenous area of Mexico on teacher candidates. Candidates showed growth in new understandings, such as their role as bilingual teachers in terms of validating students’ cultures and their sense of global interconnectedness with transnational students and communities. Applied classroom projects several months after field practice showed a similar impact, beginning to make the case that transnational field practice can also positively influence the academic performance of the candidates’ future students.     

An English-Speaking Prekindergarten Teacher for Young Latino Children: Implications of the Teacher–Child Relationship on Second Language Learning

This case study was designed to describe how an effective English-speaking prekindergarten teacher develops strategies for communicating with and teaching young English language learners. The teacher’s classroom practices to enhance her own relationship with the children promoted opportunities for the Latino children to become full participants in the classroom community. At the end of the year, the Latino children showed progress in formal and informal measures of receptive vocabulary in both English and Spanish. Findings from the study suggest the importance of the affective and social nature of second language learning in young children. Implications for practice and research are discussed.     

Using the known to chart the unknown: A review of first-language influence on the development of English-as-a-second-language spelling skill

Currently, there is a practical demand and necessity for research on how English-as-a-second language (ESL) learners acquire literacy skills, such as spelling. One important issue of this research agenda is how ESL learners apply first-language knowledge to learning to spell in English. Twenty-seven studies were reviewed that investigated the influence of the first language on ESL learners’ development of English spelling skill. Evidence was found for both positive and negative transfer of first-language knowledge and processes to ESL learners’ English spelling. These results are in agreement with theoretical propositions about the interdependence between first- and second-language academic skills [e.g., Cummins, J. (1981). In California State Department of Education (Ed.), Schooling and language minority students: A theoretical framework (pp. 3–49). Los Angeles: Evaluation, Dissemination, and Assessment Center, California State University, Los Angeles]. The findings are discussed in relation to the ESL learner’s first-language proficiency level and distance between first language and English. Comparisons are drawn between ESL learners’ and English monolinguals’ spelling development and suggestions for future research are provided.     

素质教育与外语能力培养

外语教学作为一门语言教学能促进学生综合素质的增长，素质教育要求外语教学学全面培养学生外语能力，外语能力的获得有赖于相关素质的培养，故培养外语能力须培养相关素质。     

Differential effects of home and preschool learning environments on early language development

The present study is based on longitudinal data from a German early childhood education and care (ECEC) governmental initiative assessing children's grammatical and vocabulary development between 2;6 and 4;0 years (N = 1,331), quality of the home learning environment and quality of the preschool setting. Results showed that the quality of the home learning environment predicted development in grammatical skills, but not in receptive vocabulary at age 4, while the effects of preschool process quality showed similar relative impacts on both language outcomes. Further analyses revealed effects of accumulated advantages of preschool quality for children from medium‐ and high‐quality home learning environments in their vocabulary development. The results are compared with previous findings from the German ECEC context and discussed with respect to implications for policy efforts to improve ECEC quality and ways in which both learning environments act together on children's development.     

人的发展:新世纪语文教育追求的最高目标

人的发展是教育的主旋律 ,语文教育与人的发展的关系最为密切。在新的世纪里 ,语文教育应该摆脱应试教育的束缚 ,以人为中心 ,把人的发展作为语文教育追求的最高目标。为此 ,教师的教育观念要现代化 ,教育评价要科学 ,教育功能要重人文性 ,教育内容要重科学性 ,教育方法要鼓励创新 ,课程结构要多样化 ,教育形式要向学生中心论转变     

学前班活动语言教育的存在及规律

学前班活动发展课程应该高度重视语言教育的基础作用和内在规律性,这不仅仅是《学前班语言活动课程》的内容,而应该贯穿到《学前班数学活动课程》《学前班艺术活动课程》《学前班社会活动课程》《学前班科学活动课程》《学前班健康活动课程》中去,成为学前“活动”学习的核心内容之一,儿童多元智能发展的核心问题是语言教育。     

Early development among dual language learners: The roles of language use at home,maternal immigration,country of origin,and socio-demographic variables

Using nationally representative data from the ECLS-B, we examined children's outcomes and growth from 9 to 65 months as a function of language used in the home at 24 months (English only n = 7300; English and another language n = 1500; other language only n = 400). We also examined whether demographic variables moderated the effects of DLL status in predicting child outcomes. Results revealed substantial variation within the DLL population within and across language groups in immigration status, heritage country, child outcomes, and family socioeconomic risk. DLL status was associated with differential outcomes, gains over time, and processes in complex ways. Maternal birth outside of the U.S., child gender, and parental education moderated relations between home language and child outcomes. Use of the heritage language at home served as a protective factor for children of immigrant families for a few outcomes. Gender and parental education were more strongly associated with child outcomes among English-speaking households than among DLLs.     

Going to the bush: language,power and the conserved environment in southern Africa

English, in the words of Bill Bryson, ‘is one of the world's great growth industries’. Like some kind of metalanguage with its own Europe‐based meaning systems, it has constructed its own discourses in relation to Africa's conserved natural environment, nature documentaries, tourism and environmental education – at the expense of indigenous knowledge systems, cultural practices and languages. This paper examines the potency of English when it comes to notions such as that of the animal, the ‘wilderness experience’, hunting practices and ‘the African bush’ and how these meaning systems have percolated through to environmental education in relation to conserved areas in eastern and southern Africa. Drawing on critical language awareness theories and informal interviews and discussions with staff and students (representing a multitude of languages) at the University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg, the predominance and hegemony of English as the exclusive language of learning and teaching in environmental education is questioned.     

Effects of early education programs and practices on the development and learning of dual language learners: A review of the literature

This article describes the results of a comprehensive review of the research literature from 2000 to 2011 evaluating the effects of early care and education practices on the developmental outcomes of dual language learners (DLLs) from birth through 5 years of age. Across 25 studies that met inclusion criteria, study samples consisted primarily of Latino or Spanish-speaking children 3–5 years of age enrolled in center-based programs. The analysis focused on features of the early education programs and practices (intensity and language of instruction) and research methods (sampling, research designs) in relation to child outcomes for the various types of research interventions evaluated in these studies (center-based programs, professional development, curricula, and instructional strategies). On the basis of a few large-scale scientifically sound studies, the review found at least some evidence to suggest that DLLs benefitted from attending widely available, well regulated programs such as Head Start and public pre-k, particularly with respect to improving language and literacy skills. However, because the extant research has not systematically accounted for the separate effects of language of instruction versus type of intervention, very little can be concluded about how these factors contribute to the positive main effects of these interventions.