L’invention de la dissertation littéraire dans l’enseignement secondaire français

The dissertation was originally a literary genre practised in France since the middle of the seventeenth century (Saint‐Evremond, Boileau). The genre was created in imitation of the Latin dissertatio that itself goes back to the sixteenth century, several thousand of which having been received by the Bibliothèque nationale de France before the nineteenth century. Little by little, the number of French dissertations caught up with the number of Latin dissertationes in the catalogue of the library, with equality being reached by 1800. In the second phase, in the eighteenth century, the exercise of the dissertation passed from literary or erudite circles to the academic and university world. But it was only during the nineteenth century that it spread in the French university, first to the licence and the agrégation in the humanities, in its double Latin and French form, then in philosophy classes, where it was practised in the two languages. During the first half of the century, the distribution of the French composition exercises followed a simple principle: up to the rhetoric class (the first), the students wrote narratives and discourses (French, but also Latin) that applied the principles of traditional rhetoric (imitation of the great writers, amplification, figures, pompous style); in philosophy, one moved on to the dissertation, which was based on contrasting principles (rigorous treatment of the subject, self‐determination of the plan and the general organization, adoption of a precise style devoid of useless decorations). In the second half of the nineteenth century, the dissertation gradually won ground over the discourse, which, in this period of rapid evolution, remained too much bound to the most traditional classic humanities. It began to be practised in the rhetoric class, and preference was given to French literature (but also Latin and Greek). In 1836, for the first time, a literary dissertation was given on a classical author in a public examination (it was a competition for the agrégation in humanities). After 1870, the taste for French literature, which till then was the poor relative of classical studies, invaded secondary‐school education, as a reaction to the defeat and the loss of national territory. In ten years, a decisive evolution occurred, first in minds and then in the regulations. The Latin discourse, which was the major examination for the baccalaureate, was done away with by Jules Ferry in 1880 and was replaced by a “French composition on a literary or historical subject”. The literary dissertation was henceforth on track. It remained only to find ways of teaching it to students, which would still take several decades.     

Didactisme et méthode didactique en France: la rationalité de la méthode et l'influence allemande,au début du XXe siècle

The generic term “didactic” has had for a long time in France the rather depreciatory meaning of a formal, expositing method putting the authority of the teacher above active participation of the pupil. Far before the arrival of disciplinary didactics which took place in the 1970s and which acknowledged in France, the German meaning of rational method applied to teaching, there was as early as the beginning of the XXth century a first wave of German Swiss and Belgian influences which enable that underestimated term to regain a rational and reflexive meaning.     

L'analyse des méthodes de la traduction dans Jean Christophe

<正>Fu Lei a utilisésynthétiquement les variés modèles de phrase de sorte que les syntaxes sont divers,riches,variés,variables avec accord.Par conséquent,il est plus aisépour les lecteurs de reprendre souffle et absorber l'essence du texte au cours de lire sans fatigue d'esthétique.Vu les influences des facteurs     

L’héritage de la méthode suédoise d’éducation physique en France: les conflits de méthode au sein de l’Ecole normale de gymnastique et d’escrime de Joinville au début du XXème siècle

The Swedish physical education method has had a singular destiny in France. Originally created by the Swedish Per Henrik Ling (1776–1839), it first spread in France thanks to German doctors. From 1902, the Swedish method became the official method of the Ecole normale de gymnastique et d’escrime de Joinville. It caused serious dissension first within the army, between Georges Hébert, a naval officer attempting to spread his own method called ‘Méthode naturelle’, and Emile Coste, a major at Joinville school who was a resolute supporter of Ling’s method; then within Joinville school, where, from 1905, Georges Demeny, renowned physiologist, tried to impose his French method ‘Eclectique’. The three protagonists would use arguments focused on the rationality of the Swedish method to legitimize or criticize it. But this explicit stake based on the validity of the link between a scientific culture – anatomy and physiology – and a physical education method does not mask the implicit stake of real power.     

Problématique dans l'apprentissage de la mathématique

Sans résumé     

Les directeurs d’écoles ou l’exercice de l’autorité dans les établissements scolaires de Berlin-Est dans les années 1950

A partir d’un matériau croisant des sources officielles (lois, règlements, directives) et des sources tirées de la pratique scolaire locale (chroniques, protocoles des réunions pédagogiques d’établissements scolaires), l’article souhaite étudier concrètement la “micro-physique du pouvoir” socialiste dans les écoles de Berlin-Est au début des années 1950. On cherche à comprendre comment l’autorité socialiste s’incarne et s’exerce sur le terrain au quotidien dans la construction d’une nouvelle société au moyen de la formation d’un homme nouveau. En partant de la figure du directeur d’école comme lieu d’observation du travail pour imposer le communisme au quotidien, l’ambition est d’étudier l’exercice de la domination politique dans ses relations et ses interactions avec deux acteurs essentiels de l’institution scolaire que sont les enseignants et les élèves. Dans la mesure où le pouvoir socialiste se veut immanent, il n’est pas concentré uniquement au sein des structures du pouvoir central et son champ d’action s’exerce donc dans des “foyers locaux” où il transite par des individus qui doivent officiellement l’incarner au quotidien. Loin de considérer uniquement l’école comme une simple courroie de transmission d’un régime totalitaire qui imposerait d’en haut un système de règles, nous cherchons à travers la figure du directeur à analyser l’interaction entre Etat et société au “ras du sol”: comment exerce-t-on la fonction de directeur d’école au début des années 1950 à Berlin-Est? Dans quelle mesure l’analyse des modalités d’exercice de cette autorité éducative et politique permet-elle de mettre en évidence et d’expliciter un certain nombre de logiques politiques, culturelles et sociales macro-historiques?     

La diffusion de la géographie dans l’enseignement français (fin XIXe siècle,début XXe) : force du mouvement et variété des projets

From the 1860s to the beginning of the twentieth century, the rise of academic geography in industrialized countries resulted from the need to produce geography teachers. The mushrooming of school geography, in turn, reflected a complex mixture of pedagogic thought, of a modernization trend, of nationalism and of imperialism. In France, this context caused the emergence of contrasting models describing the scientific requirements of school geography, from loose relations between scientific and pedagogical spheres to the structural link joining the republican university to the various school levels. This article details the strategy through which a group of scholars of the École normale supérieure led by P. Vidal de la Blache succeeded in creating a cognitive space for a new scientific discipline. It describes briefly its progressive introduction in elementary and in classical secondary teaching and how several older elements remained in programmes and in the school curriculum.     

L'emploi des Circuits Fermés de Télévision dans l'Enseignement Secondaire

The 8th International Week for Educational and Teaching Films organised by the Ministry of Education and Flemish Culture was opened on 17 April 1972—about a month later than usual.     

Un profil de compétences pour les professeurs d’informatique de l’enseignement secondaire camerounais

A competency profile for teachers of Computer Science in Cameroonian secondary education – In 1998, the Cameroonian government decided to introduce Computer Science as a school subject. To implement this decision, it began to train teachers of Computer Science according to the same training model used for teachers of other disciplines. Despite the consensus that seems to be emerging from the scientific community regarding the need to give priority to a cross-disciplinary use of information and communication technologies (ICT) in primary and secondary education, some countries, such as Cameroon, have opted to teach Computer Science. While such a political choice might in principle appear to be inappropriate for the development of students’ ICT skills, the article shows that it nevertheless introduces teachers into the system who have a predisposition to act as catalysts for the pedagogical integration of ICT. Such a development could occur provided these teachers are trained in a range of additional skills – those proposed in the article – which would enable them to contribute effectively. If this approach were implemented, sub-Saharan countries such as Cameroon would, in their Computer Science teachers, have access to human resources capable of quickly generalising the cross-disciplinary use of ICT in the education system.     

Education et société dans la première moitié du XVIIIe siècle: de Vallange et ses projets de réforme complète de l'éducation 1710–1740

At the beginning of the 18th century, M. de Vallange proposed a wide‐ranging programme to reform education in France. He intended to introduce teaching methods based on John Locke's works and to create a full‐scale system of new educational institutions. The royal institutions called “collèges” were to be abolished and a secular body of academics in charge of the new ones was to be appointed. The new curriculum proposed by M. de Vallange responded better than the former to the requirements of society, the children's capacity for work, and the new intellectual attainments brought about by the scientific progress of the 17th century.

This project formed part of a larger educational trend that, between 1710 and 1740, brought the notion of education closer to the concept of society.     

Quelques aspects didactiques du développement de la pensée des enfants dans les mathématiques et la physique

Sans résuméConférence tenue au Congrès sur l'Intégration des enseignements scientifiques, à Varna, 11–19 septembre 1968.     

La Statistique: Fin et Moyen dans la Formation de l'ingénieur

RÉUMÉ

In this paper the recent needs and trends in statistics for engineers are discussed, particularly statistics as a motivating and illustrative tool in engineers' technical and methodological education.

Tendances et besoins recents en matière de statistique pour l'ingénieur. Rôe de motivation et d'illustration de la statistique dans sa formation technique et méthodologique.     

Modalités de la pensée mathématique d'élèves de douze ans devant des problèmes de pavages

Resumé Le présent article est d'abord une analyse d'un enseignement dans lequel des élèves de douze ans ont traité des problèmes de pavages polygonaux et progressé à cette occasion dans leur apprentissage de la géométrie plane. L'analyse, qui a porté principalement sur les processus de pensée des élèves, aboutit à rassembler ces processus en deux catégories principales: ceux qui relèvent d'une pensée dite instantanée et qui se manifestent surtout par des constats ou des conjectures rapides, et ceux qui sont plutôt discursifs et apparaissent principalement dans les activités de dessin et l'argumentation des preuves.Cet article contient aussi une comparaison de l'enseignement mentionné ci-dessus avec celui réalisé par D. van Hiele sur le même thème et analysé dans sa thèse de doctorat (1957).

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Forms of mathematical thought of twelve years old students at tiling problems

The main part of this paper consists in an analysis of the activities of twelve years old students solving problems of polygonal tilings and improving on this occasion their knowledge of plane geometry. The analysis, bearing principally on the thinking processes of the students, results in a presentation of these processes in two principal categories: those which belong to what may be called the instantaneous thinking and result mainly in the perception of some simple structures or in some swift conjectures, and those which are of a more discursive nature and appear mainly in the drawing activities and in the argumentation of the proofs.This paper contains also a comparison of the above mentioned teaching with the analogous one organized on the same theme (tilings of the plane) by D. van Hiele, and analysed in her Ph.D. (1957).

     

Un exemple de cadre conceptuel pour létude de l'enseignement de la géométrie en formation des maîtres

We are interested in the teaching of geometry to primary school (children from 3 to 11) teachers. We define a priori a conceptual frame, which organises geometry upon three kinds of knowledge: intuition, experience and deduction. Drawing on Gonseth's works, we bring out three syntheses of elementary geometry: natural geometry (geometry I), natural axiomatic geometry (geometry II) and formalist axiomatic geometry (geometry III). Next we illustrate this conceptual frame with examples of teaching geometry. Last we bring out different conceptions of geometry in scholar system which could lead to cross purposes.This revised version was published online in September 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Emploi des Circuits Fermés de Télévision pour I'Enseignement des Sciences dans les Universités

De prime abord, il faut souligner que le circuit fermé de télévision n'est qu'un des moyens audio-visuels utilisés dans les facultés des sciences. Le nombre et l'employ de ces circuits fermés de télévision restent encore limités, c'est le cinéma qui continue d'être le moyen vedette. Cette situation est directement liée au fait que si l'on considère le rapport: travail/efficacité/prix, le circuit fermé de télévision est le plus cher des moyens audio-visuels. Néamnions la loupe collective ou épiscope électronique, échappe à cette critique.