Primary school size and learning achievement in Senegal: Testing the quantity–quality trade-off

The literature on the effects of primary school size on learning achievement in sub-Saharan Africa is rather limited. To address this gap, we examine the causal relationship between primary school size and learning achievement of two cohorts of students, followed with collection of three rounds of data in Senegal. These two cohorts attended grades 2 and 4 at the beginning of the 2009–2010 school year. We implement an empirical strategy that hinges on value-added models estimated with a doubly robust approach; we find that fourth/fifth graders (and not second/third graders) attending mid-sized schools perform significantly better than their counterparts attending smaller or larger schools. These results are robust to a number of sensitivity analyses. The potential mechanisms through which school size operates include student’s gender, family socioeconomic status, class size and the urban/rural location of the schools. Importantly, we suggest optimal sizes of primary schools for both policymakers and parents. These optimal sizes are contingent upon schools’ urban or rural location.     

Class Size and Student Performance at a Public Research University: A Cross-Classified Model

This study addresses several methodological problems that have confronted prior research on the effect of class size on student achievement. Unlike previous studies, this analysis accounts for the hierarchical data structure of student achievement, where grades are nested within classes and students, and considers a wide range of class sizes across various disciplines. Based on data from undergraduate class sections at a single institution, the study provides consistent evidence of a negative effect of class size on grade performance, most substantially affecting the achievement of “A” grades with lesser effect on grades of “C” or higher. Because models with logarithmic specification show superior fit, this study also demonstrates that the effect of class size on students’ final grades diminishes as the class size increases. These findings suggest that a larger impact on student performance could be attained by further trimming enrollment in small classes than by reducing class size overall.     

Class size effects on mathematics achievement in Cyprus: evidence from TIMSS

Class size reduction has been viewed as one school mechanism that can improve student achievement. Nonetheless, the literature has reported mixed findings about class size effects. We used 4th- and 8th-grade data from TIMSS 2003 and 2007 to examine the association between class size and mathematics achievement in public schools in Cyprus. We employ instrumental variables methods, and take advantage of a regression discontinuity design to examine causal effects of class size on mathematics achievement. The results indicate a non-significant relationship between class size and mathematics achievement in 8th grades. However, there is evidence of positive class size effects in 4th grade. The gender gap is significant and favoured males in 4th grade and females in 8th grade. SES indexes such as parental education and items in the home are positively and significantly related to mathematics achievement. Teacher and school variables are not significantly related with mathematics achievement.     

School size and student achievement: a longitudinal analysis

Numerous initiatives by private philanthropies and the US government have supported school size reduction policies as an educational reform intended to improve student outcomes. Empirical evidence to support these claims, however, is underdeveloped. In this article, we draw on information from a longitudinal dataset provided by the Northwest Evaluation Association covering more than 1 million students in 4 US states. Employing a student fixed effects strategy, we estimate how a student’s achievement changes as (s)he moves between schools of different sizes. We find evidence that students’ academic achievement in math and reading declines as school size increases. The negative effects of large schools appear to matter most in higher grades, which is also when schools tend to be the largest.     

Crowding Peter to educate Paul: Lessons from a class size reduction externality

This paper examines an increase in upper elementary class sizes in California associated with the K-3 class size reduction program. I also use the variation in fourth and fifth grade class size generated by idiosyncratic first and second grade reductions required to meet program rules to identify a negative impact of larger class sizes on achievement in upper elementary grades. These quasi-experimental findings generally agree with results of prior foreign and fixed-effects studies on upper grade levels, though my estimates are larger in some cases. The findings also imply that any evaluation strategy for class size reduction that uses upper grades as implicit or explicit controls is likely flawed.     

Quasi-experimental estimates of class size effect in primary schools in Poland

In this paper we analyze class size effects in the case of primary schools in Poland. We use two empirical strategies to avoid endogeneity bias. First, we use average class size in a grade as an instrumental variable for actual class size. This allows us to control for within school selection of pupils with different abilities to classes of different sizes. Additionally, we estimate fixed effects for schools to control for differences between them. Second, we exploit the fact that there is an informal maximum class size rule. We estimate class size effect only for those enrollment levels where some schools decide to add a new class and thus dramatically lower class sizes. For such enrollment levels variance of class size is mainly exogenous and we argue that this allows estimation of quasi-experimental class size effects. In this case we again use average class size as an instrument with enrollment as a key control variable. Using both strategies we obtain similar findings. We found that the positive effects observed with OLS regression disappear when we use instrumental variables. If we avoid endogeneity bias, then class size negatively affects student achievement. However, this effect is rather small. We discuss methodology, possible bias of results and the importance of our findings to current policy issues in Poland.     

A comparison of students who delay kindergarten entry and those who are retained in grades K−5

Retention has been one way that school personnel have dealt with the problem of school failure. Some authors have proposed delayed school entry as an alternative to retention, especially since there are concerns about the effects of retention on students' self-esteem. It is unclear from the literature whether retention and delayed entry have differential outcomes on measures of school success. This study explored whether there were differences in IQ and achievement (at grades 2, 5, and 7) between students who delayed school entry and those who were retained in later elementary grades, as well as any interactions with gender. There was a significant 6-point difference in IQ, favoring the delayed-entry group. Furthermore, when the achievement test scores were analyzed using an ANCOVA with IQ as a covariate, no significant differences were identified for either group or gender. Implications for school practices are provided.     

Performance Trajectories and Performance Gaps as Achievement Effect-Size Benchmarks for Educational Interventions

Abstract

Two complementary approaches to developing empirical benchmarks for achievement effect sizes in educational interventions are explored. The first approach characterizes the natural developmental progress in achievement made by students from one year to the next as effect sizes. Data for seven nationally standardized achievement tests show large annual gains in the early elementary grades followed by gradually declining gains in later grades. A given intervention effect will therefore look quite different when compared to the annual progress for different grade levels. The second approach explores achievement gaps for policy-relevant subgroups of students or schools. Data from national- and district-level achievement tests show that, when represented as effect sizes, student gaps are relatively small for gender and much larger for economic disadvantage and race/ethnicity. For schools, the differences between weak schools and average schools are surprisingly modest when expressed as student-level effect sizes. A given intervention effect viewed in terms of its potential for closing one of these performance gaps will therefore look very different depending on which gap is considered.     

A‐level Results in Comprehensive Schools: the COMBSE project,Year 1

Abstract

This analysis of A‐level English and Mathematics results from ten comprehensive schools in the north‐east represents some of the work done in the first year of a ‘school effects’ study entitled the COMBSE project ('Confidential, Measurement‐Based, Self‐Evaluation'). The project enables participating schools to compare their A‐level results with those of similar schodls. In an attempt to take account of differences in intakes to the schools, data were collected for a wide range of variables expected to relate to A‐level grades: prior achievement, socio‐economic status, class size, teacher characteristics and time variables such as time allocated and time reportedly spent on homework. However, once an index based on an average O‐level grade was computed, other variables contributed little or nothing to the prediction of A‐level grades.

Some findings ran counter to the general pattern of effects in the literature. For example, a negative correlation between time spent on homework and grades achieved, and smaller classes obtaining lower residual gains than larger classes in English, though not in Mathematics. Two issues were raised: is the 30% failure rate reasonable and should A‐level Mathematics be so much more difficult to pass than A‐level English?     

Effects of Toy Crane Design-Based Learning on Simple Machines

The aim of this 2-group study was to investigate the following question: Are there significant differences between scaffolded design-based learning controlled using 7 forms and teacher-directed instruction methods for the toy crane project on grade 7 students’ posttest scores on the simple machines achievement test, attitude toward simple machines, and attitude toward creativity in simple machines after adjusting for their respective pretest scores and the prior semester science grades? The study group (N = 65) consisted of grade 7 students in public middle schools in Burdur, Turkey. There were significant treatment effects favoring the first method with large effect sizes on both achievement and creative attitude scores. Teaching topics about simple machines with the design-based method increased students’ achievement and creative attitude without disadvantaging their attitude toward the topic as they constructed new knowledge through each step of the precise process.     

The Relationship of Effective Schools Indicators and Changes in the Social Distribution of Achievement

ABSTRACT

This study focused on school effectiveness in terms of changes in the distribution of achievement across socio‐economic status (SES) for a cohort of 9700 students as they progressed from grade 1 to grade 3. The achievement/SES link was operationalized as the standardized mean difference in achievement (EFFSIZE) between samples of high and low SES students for 165 schools. EFFSIZE measures in reading and mathematics were analyzed in an hierarchical linear model which allowed an assessment of the impact of 13 school characteristics on initial (grade 1) status and, more importantly, on trends over time. The results indicate that, on the average, low SES students are at an initial disadvantage relative to their high SES peers in both subjects and that the difference widens across the first three grades. True school variance in slopes was found in mathematics but not reading, a result consistent with previous research. The school characteristics, which included six indicators based on the effective schools literature, were found to be ineffective predictors of these growth parameters.     

A Longitudinal Assessment of Antecedent Course Work in Mathematics and Subsequent Mathematical Attainment

Abstract

Using six waves of data (Grades 7–12) from the Longitudinal Study of American Youth, the author examined the effects of different mathematics course work (pre-algebra, geometry, calculus) on subsequent achievement in, and attitude toward, mathematics, with partial adjustment for student background characteristics. Results showed that in the early grades of high school, algebra courses significantly affected mathematics achievement. Mathematics course work, however, did not play a significant role in mathematics achievement in the middle grades of high schools. There was a “harvest” of significant course-work indicators in the later grades of high school; every advanced mathematics course affected mathematics achievement. Many course-work effects were substantial even after accounting for variables such as prior mathematics achievement and socioeconomic status.     

Attitude Toward Self, Social Factors, and Achievement in Mathematics: A Meta-Analytic Review

This meta-analysis integrated 143 primary studies on the relationship of attitude toward self and social factors with achievement in mathematics. Attitude was decomposed into self-concept about mathematics, perception of family support, and perception of mathematics as a male domain. Major findings included: (a) self-concept, family support, and mathematics as a male domain were all related to achievement; (b) the three relationships did not show significant gender differences; (c) the three relationships consistently decreased from the junior high grades to the senior high grades; (d) the relationship between self-concept and achievement varied as a function of ethnicity, whereas the relationship between family support and achievement was consistent across ethnic background; (e) the three relationships all varied across sample selection; (f) the relationship between self-concept and achievement varied with sample size, whereas the relationships of family support and mathematics as a male domain with achievement were sample-size invariant; (g) the relationship between self-concept and achievement increased over time, whereas the relationships of family support and mathematics as a male domain with achievement remained almost unchanged over time; and (h) there were no statistically significant interaction effects among gender, grade, and ethnicity for any of the three relationships.     

Do interim assessments reduce the race and SES achievement gaps?

The authors examined differential effects of interim assessments on minority and low socioeconomic status students' achievement in Grades K–6. They conducted a large-scale cluster randomized experiment in 2009–2010 to evaluate the impact of Indiana's policy initiative introducing interim assessments statewide. The authors used 2-level models to analyze the single-grade data and determine whether interim assessments interacted with student ethnicity, socioeconomic status, gender, or school composition (i.e., percent of minority or disadvantaged students). The authors also combined estimates across grades using fixed effects meta-analysis. Results indicated little evidence about differential effects. The majority of interaction estimates were insignificant and close to zero. There is some indication that in Grades K–2 Indiana's interim assessment may have closed the Hispanic–White gap in reading. In kindergarten and Grade 3 the treatment may have widened the gap between schools with higher and lower percentages of minority students and may have reduced the gap between schools with higher and lower percentages of economically disadvantaged students in mathematics.     

The relationships between first name desirability and school readiness,IQ, and school achievement

The relationships between first name desirability and school readiness, IQ, and school achievement were explored using 1,727 elementary school children. Ratings of the desirability of first names were completed by 2,212 boys and girls in elementary and secondary schools. School readiness, IQ, and achievement variables showed small, but significant, correlations with first name desirability for girls; boys also showed a first name effect, but the magnitude was less. Most correlations remained significant even when the effects of parental education and ethnicity were partialled out. First name desirability was discussed as a specific case of stereotyping.     

Computerized assessment of independent reading: Effects of implementation quality on achievement gain

This study elaborates the “what works?” question by exploring the effects of variability in program implementation quality on achievement. Particularly, the effects on achievement of computerized assessment of reading were investigated, analyzing data on 51,000 students in Grades 1 – 12 who read over 3 million books. When minimum implementation quality criteria were met, the positive effect of computerized assessment was higher in the earlier grades and for lower achievement students. Implementation quality tended to decline at higher grade levels. With higher implementation quality, reading achievement gains were higher for students of all levels of achievement and across all grades, but especially in the higher grades. Very high gains and effect sizes were evident with very high implementation quality, particularly in Grades 1 – 4. Implications for practice, the interpretation of research, and policy are noted.     

Restructuring Schools in Cleveland for the Social,Emotional, and Intellectual Development of Early Adolescents

Following several years of negative trends in achievement and attendance in the middle grades, the Cleveland Municipal School District began phasing out middle schools by restructuring 21 of its 80 K-5 elementary schools into K-8 schools. This study examined Cleveland's restructuring initiative in light of 2 theories on early adolescent development: person-in-environment theory and the focal theory of change. Case studies of two of the K-8 schools revealed highly flexible and adaptable organizations with strong principal and teacher leadership and efficacy that resulted in middle grades in which early adolescents felt safe and protected and had increased opportunities for autonomy, self-expression, leadership, peer-oriented activities, and intellectual challenge. School climate was characterized by personal and supportive relationships among and between early adolescents and school staff. The middle grades environment created in the K-8 schools was very responsive to the psychosocial and cognitive needs of early adolescents. An impact analysis attempted to examine the academic consequences of requiring students to make a transition from an elementary to a middle school while they simultaneously deal with the psychosocial instability of early adolescence. Reading and math achievement of 6th-grade students in all of Cleveland's K-8 schools was compared to that of 6th-grade students in the district's middle schools, while controlling for differences in prior levels of achievement at Grade 5 (i.e., prior to the transition). There was a statistically significant difference between K-8 and middle school outcomes, favoring K-8 schools. The effect sizes were in the medium range (d = .29 and .38), suggesting that the continuity provided by a K-8 school is preferable to the discontinuity associated with transitioning to a middle grades school.     

Socioeconomic Gaps in Academic Achievement Within Schools: Are They Consistent Across Subject Areas?

Few studies have examined the correlates of within-school socioeconomic gaps in academic achievement corresponding to subject areas across schools. This study addressed this limitation with data from the New Brunswick School Climate Study (N = 6,883 students from 148 schools) which contained measures on academic achievement in four subject areas (mathematics, science, reading, and writing) as well as student and school background characteristics. Results of multivariate, multilevel analyses showed that within-school socioeconomic gaps were similar between reading and writing as well as between mathematics and science. Furthermore, the interrelationships of within-school socioeconomic gaps in academic achievement corresponding to the four subject areas across schools were not much influenced by student background characteristics (gender, Native status, number of parents, and number of siblings) and characteristics of school context and climate (school size, school mean SES, disciplinary climate, academic expectation, and parental involvement).     

The relative quality and cost-effectiveness of private and public schools for low-income families: a case study in a developing country

The “mushrooming” of private schools for low-income families has been widely noted in the literature; however, very little is known about the quality of these schools. This research explored the relative quality of private unaided (recognised and unrecognised) and government schools in low-income areas of Hyderabad, India. A preliminary census to locate unrecognised private schools – not on official lists – was conducted. Data were collected on achievement and background variables for 3,910 pupils from a stratified random sample of schools. Using multilevel modelling shows that pupils in private unrecognised and recognised schools, when controlled for age, pupil's IQ, and class average IQ, achieve higher scores in mathematics and English than equivalent pupils in government schools. There is no significant difference between private and government schools in pupil achievement in Urdu. The achievement advantage for private schools did not arise because of greater resources available, at least in terms of per pupil teacher salaries.     

Achievement-related within-school socioeconomic gaps in science subjects in China: evidence on existence,consistency, and compensation

Using data from the 2011 (Chinese) Student Academic Achievement Evaluation, we examined whether within-school socioeconomic gaps in science achievement exist across science subjects, how consistent they are, and whether there are relationships between school average science achievement and within-school socioeconomic gaps in science achievement. Results of multivariate multilevel analyses indicate that for both fathers and mothers within-school socioeconomic gaps in science achievement existed among schools but did not vary much across schools. School mean socioeconomic status and teacher experience were related to these gaps. Schools were strongly consistent in within-school socioeconomic gaps in science achievement across science subjects, and this consistency was independent of (robust to) student and school characteristics. The relationships between school average science achievement and within-school socioeconomic gaps in science achievement were rather weak among schools across science subjects, and the addition of school characteristics to student characteristics effectively demolished the relationships.