Differentiating emotionally impaired from socially maladjusted students

This paper addresses the issue of whether serious emotional disturbance in children can be distinguished reliably from social maladjustment. Educational authorities at the local, state, and federal levels have expressed concern over the inclusion of socially maladjusted youths in special education programs for the seriously emotionally disturbed. For multidisciplinary teams to enforce the exclusionary clause of PL 94–142, which denies socially maladjusted students services for the seriously emotionally impaired unless it is determined that they are seriously emotionally disturbed, practitioners must be able to distinguish between these two conditions. The literature on taxonomies of childhood psychopathology was reviewed and a set of items based on research and clinical experience was developed to differentiate between these two groups. These items were submitted to eight school psychologists. Eleven items met the criterion of agreement by at least six of the eight psychologists. Implications for school psychologists are discussed.     

Participation of psychologists in multidisciplinary team evaluations

State implementation plans required by PL 94–142 were collected and reviewed to determine whether psychologists were mentioned as appropriate members of multidisciplinary evaluation teams. Questionnaire data from 625 directors of special education also were analyzed to determine the frequency with which psychologists actually participated on the evaluation teams. The review revealed an apparent reluctance on the part of states to specify psychologists as appropriate team members. When psychologists were mentioned, school psychologists and other types of psychologists were identified with near equal frequencies. Even though states' implementation guidelines infrequently identified psychologists for participation on multidisciplinary teams, 81% of the surveyed teams actually included a psychologist. However, psychologists' rate of participation varied among the states. Implications of the minimum state requirements and varying participation of psychologists among states are discussed.     

The prevalence of social maladjustment among school-age children

PL 94-142 mandates that students who are seriously emotionally disturbed be provided with a free and appropriate public education. Embedded in the federal definition of serious emotional disturbance is a clause that excludes socially maladjusted students from the diagnostic category. Although socially maladjusted children may therefore not receive special education services, their presence in the schools may have implications for society and particularly for the educational system. However, there is little data concerning the prevalence of socially maladjusted students in the schools. The purpose of this study was to investigate the prevalence of social maladjustment in two rural/suburban school systems in the southeastern United States. Results of the study indicate that the percentage of students reported as exhibiting characteristics of social maladjustment is sufficiently high to indicate that services beyond special education may be necessary to meet their educational and social needs.     

Defining emotional disturbance public policy and research

The legal definition of “emotional disturbance” proposed by the Federal Government under PL 94–142 is Bower's 1957 definition with some modifications. The modifications do serious damage to the integrity of the research and conceptual base from which the definition is drawn. The difficulties inherent in a definition of this type of handicapped are delineated. It is suggested that where policy makers and researchers join together, such relationships are best enhanced when each respects the assumptions and concepts of the other.     

National survey of school psychologists regarding use of dynamic assessment and other nontraditional assessment techniques

A national survey investigating the use of dynamic assessment and other nontraditional assessment techniques among school psychologists (N = 226) was conducted. Results of the survey indicated that 42% of respondents were at least “somewhat familiar” with dynamic assessment. However, of those familiar with dynamic assessment, only 39% reported using the techniques once a year or more. The most frequently endorsed reasons for not using dynamic assessment (if familiar with it) were lack of knowledge and time restraints. Learning disabled students were the population of students most often evaluated using dynamic assessment and the dynamic assessment was most often used to determine processing strengths and weaknesses. The majority of those familiar with dynamic assessment became so through independent reading. Only 10% reported learning about dynamic assessment through course work. In response to questions regarding assessment techniques most often used with minority students the majority of respondents reported using traditional assessment tools including the WISC‐III (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–Third Edition), BINET IV (Stanford‐Binet Intelligence Scale–Fourth Edition), or KABC (Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children). Overall, the results of the survey suggest that although the population is becoming increasingly more diverse and changes in PL94‐142 (Public Law 94‐142) demand functional assessments, school psychologists continue to rely heavily upon traditional assessment techniques to address referral concerns of all students. This may in large part be due to weaknesses in graduate training programs. © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

The impact of PL 94-142 on the practice of school psychology: A national survey

This paper presents the results of a national survey of school psychologists to determine the impact of PL 94-142 on the role of the school psychologist. Data were based on responses to 856 surveys by practicing school psychologists who were selected randomly from the NASP membership list during 1979-80. The results suggested that this legislation has had remarkably little impact on the evaluation procedures used or on the school psychologist's role. The two clear changes that have occurred may have negative implications for psychological services (e.g., an increased focus on handicapped children and increased paperwork). It was found that many school psychologists are involved in evaluation, but do not have time to be involved in the IEP process, or to provide follow-up consultation, or direct intervention for prevention and/or therapeutic purposes. This problem was exacerbated in districts that had ratios of greater than 1,000 to 1. Despite these problems, many respondents view the legislation in positive terms, and feel it has helped to enlarge the scope of practice.     

Facilitators of and barriers to school psychologists' social–emotional/behavioral practices

Using data from a national survey of school psychologists we investigated (a) the extent to which school psychologists supported students' social–emotional and behavioral well-being using data and evidence-based practices programming, (b) how facilitators and barriers impacted school psychologists' service delivery in these areas, and (c) how participants' demographic characteristics predicted facilitators to these practices. The survey was administered to randomly selected National Association of School Psychologists' members. One hundred ninety-nine full-time, school-based school psychologists (24% response rate) completed the survey. Results indicated more practitioners reported using data to design, implement, and evaluate evidence-based strategies for social–emotional and behavioral supports (M = 3.32, SD = 0.90) than reported using evidence-based strategies themselves in these same areas (M = 3.10, SD = 1.05). School psychologists who reported more facilitators were more likely to use data and engage in evidence-based practices related to social–emotional and behavioral supports for students. Results also indicated certain barriers impeded school psychologists' practices in these areas. Few demographic characteristics predicted the presence of facilitators or barriers. Findings from the current study extend the extant literature by providing empirical data on facilitators of and barriers to services related to school psychologists' use of data and evidence-based practices in these areas.     

Assessing the severity of behavior disorders: Rankings based on clinical and empirical criteria

School psychologists need to assess the severity of behavior disorders accurately to facilitate comprehensive diagnosis, to provide appropriate intervention, to enlighten research efforts, and to be in compliance with state and federal guidelines. Although clinicians in fields such as mental retardation categorize severity of behavior to make diagnostic and general treatment decisions, school psychologists rarely attempt to assess severity in any systematic or comprehensive way. The primary purpose of this study is to see how 92 practicing school psychologists rank 11 variables in their assessments of SED in school-age children. A secondary purpose is to examine the extent of school psychologists' reliance upon clinical and empirical criteria in assessing the severity of SED. It is concluded that school psychologists agree in their rankings of variables from most to least important and that they do not consider empirical criteria more important than clinically based criteria when assessing SED. Implications for practice are presented.     

学校情境中的音乐疗法——从音乐治疗师的立场看P.L.94-142前后美国学校情境中音乐疗法的发展

1975年通过并于1978年正式施行的以“回归主流”为主旨的美国P.L.94-142(现为《残障者教育法案》IDEA)使美国学校情境中进行的音乐疗法发生了变化,也给面向特殊儿童的的音乐治疗师提出了新的挑战。本文通过对有关文献资料的分析,阐述了学校情境中的音乐疗法和音乐教育的相互关系,从音乐治疗师的角度,介绍了P.L.94-142实施前后的学校情境中特殊儿童音乐治疗概念和方法的变化与发展过程,在此基础上,对中国音乐疗法在特殊教育领域中的发展提出了几点建议。     

An examination of an implementation of the simple difference score distribution model in learning disability identification

An important part of the PL 94–142 learning disability (LD) definition is the requirement that a child manifest a discrepancy between ability and achievement to be eligible for special education services. Because the language used in PL 94–142 is generic, it has been left to each state to determine how this discrepancy criterion is to be implemented. Subsequently, numerous discrepancy formulas have been proposed, and many of them have been rejected as statistically unsound. In response to this professional paralysis, and faced with continued increasing LD enrollment, the California State Legislature took matters into its own hands and passed legislation mandating the use of the simple difference score distribution model as part of the state LD eligibility criteria. This study examines the implementation of this procedure in six California school districts. The results revealed that the IEP teams' placement decisions were influenced by the students' discrepancy scores, but that prereferral status (initial evaluation vs. reevaluation) was a better predictor of postevaluation special education status. Shortcomings of this discrepancy procedure and implications for the IEP team decisionmaking process are discussed.     

Outcomes of a school‐based mental health program for youth with serious emotional disorders

The present study describes a comprehensive, day treatment program conducted in public school classrooms for children with serious emotional disorders (SED) and presents data evaluating program efficacy. Behavioral outcomes are presented for 142 children, ages 5 to 18 years, over the course of an academic year. Treatment efficacy was assessed using a behavioral outcome measure, the Youth Outcome Questionnaire. At initial evaluation, all children were exhibiting emotional symptoms beyond the scope of outpatient services, with 97% being classified as having a Severe Emotional Disorder. At the 9‐month follow‐up, 50.7% of the sample showed overall symptom reduction, and 27.5% scored below clinical cutoff levels, indicating remission of symptoms to within normal limits. Treatment response was equally likely among boys and girls, and across diagnostic categories. Elementary school‐aged children and adolescents made equivalent gains in the program; however, mixed‐model, repeated‐measures ANOVA revealed a significant group × time interaction ( p < .05), indicating that these groups showed different patterns of improvement over time. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Psychol Schs 39: 661–675, 2002.     

Public law 94–142: Practicing school psychologists' perceptions of how this law affects them

A questionnaire regarding PL 94–142 and its effects upon the practice of school psychology was developed and mailed to 389 members of the National Association of School Psychologists. Information regarding professional training, years of experience, and type of service system was obtained for the purpose of various group comparisons. Age, sex, number of years of experience, and type of service system were specifically chosen for statistical analysis. Overall results suggested two relatively divergent views expressed by practitioners. The first was the stated belief that school psychology will become much more closely tied to the field of special education, while an alternative opinion was that the field will remain as diverse as the systems it serves.     

Consistency of administrators' and psychologists' actual and ideal perceptions of school psychologists' activities

Questionnaires asking for actual and ideal perceptions of the role of the school psychologist were completed by 80 school psychologists, 37 directors of pupil personnel services, and 29 superintendents in Virginia public schools. Administrators and school psychologists are in substantial agreement regarding the amount of time the psychologist actually devotes to different job activities. Approximately 75% of the psychologist's time is spent in Meyers' Level I activities (Meyers, 1973). All groups desire a reduction in the time spent in assessment, but they differ as to what intervention levels should be increased. Psychologists see the saved time most appropriately spent in interventions at the system level. Discrepancy between actual and desired roles is discussed in terms of the impact of P.L. 94–142. The consistency of psychologists' actual and ideal perceptions correlated significantly and negatively with their job satisfaction. This relationship is discussed in terms of role conflict, and a comparison is made of actual roles with the emphasis in two professional journals.     

Internalizing symptoms and affect of children with emotional and behavioral disorders: A comparative study with an urban African American sample

Self‐reported internalizing symptoms of seriously emotionally disturbed (SED) and regular education students in grades 4–6 were compared using the Internalizing Symptoms Scale for Children. All participants were African American and from an urban public school district in the Southeastern United States. Each of the two study groups consisted of 50 participants (35 boys, 15 girls) who were matched by gender and socioeconomic status. The SED group reported significantly higher levels of internalizing distress than the regular education group. In contrast to previous findings, there was no significant gender difference in self‐reported internalizing symptomatology in the present study. A discriminant function analysis found that the ISSC scores were able to correctly classify 91% of the participants into their respective educational group. Results of this study provide additional evidence of the construct validity of the ISSC, a recently developed and unique self‐report measure. Results are discussed in terms of future research needs and educational/clinical practice with students who have emotional and behavioral disorders. © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

International Approaches to Learning Disabilities: More Alike or More Different?

This special issue deals with the identification and remediation criteria/practices employed in several countries regarding learning disabilities (LD). An analysis of the identification criteria suggests that most countries follow early law mandates of the United States (e.g., PL 94–142) regarding the definition of the disorder and use the classical discrepancy between potential and achievement model for identification purposes (with few exceptions). Several countries reported the absence of standardized assessments and experts who can deal with the disorder, a fact that is more prominent in countries that have to deal with the education of minority/immigrant groups. Multicultural, political, linguistic, and economic factors seemed to influence both the identification practices and also the remediation services (quality and availability). By closely examining the factors deemed important for students with LD, it was obvious that most authors pointed to the importance of socio‐emotional variables. I concluded that these latter factors may be accountable, to a large extent, for the experience of students with LD at school and close attention needs to be paid to them.     

Special education placement decisions as a function of professional role and handicapping condition

The restrictiveness of special education placements was examined by profession (administrators, school psychologists, and special education teacters) and by type of handicapping condition (mental retardation [MR], emotional disturbance [ED], and learning disability [LD]). A total of 66 professionals (22 in each profession) assigned placement scores, using the Rucker-Gable Educational Placement Scale, on the basis of three psychological reports (one MR, ED, and LD case per professional). Results indicated that the average placement scores for the three cases combined did not differ significantly by profession. However, a significant interaction occurred, with administrators assigning the MR and ED cases to more restrictive placements than both the school psychologists and special educators, only to shift to a relatively less restrictive approach with the LD case. Implications of these findings are discussed, including a discussion of the multidisciplinary approach to clinical decision making.     

Assessment of alcohol and other drug abuse with referred adolescents

Adolescents with alcohol or other drug problems may be referred to school psychologists for assessment and demonstrate symptoms similar to handicapping conditions such as learning disabilities or emotional disturbance. Therefore, school psychologists have a need for assessment techniques to determine the probablity that referred adolescents have alcohol or other drug problems. In this paper, prereferral questionnaires, initial interviews, behavioral observations, and assessment devices are discussed. Suggestions are made for referring substance-abusing adolescents.     

Noncontingent use of alum in the reduction of rumination

In the years following the passage of PL 94–142, increasing numbers of severely and profoundly handicapped children have been educated in public school classrooms. One of the many troublesome behaviors sometimes found among members of this population is rumination, a habit in which the child vomits repeatedly and may reingest the vomitus. The behavior is a potential health hazard. It also tends to make the child repulsive to teachers and other caregivers. Treatments developed for management of this behavior in residential facilities have tended to require time-consuming contingent aversive treatment of the rumination. The present study adventitiously identified a stimulus that is effective in reducing rates of rumination when used contingently and also when used noncontingently. Theoretical implications for the understanding of rumination are considered.     

Sex bias in clinical judgment among school psychologists

Using an analogue case study format, sex bias in clinical judgment among school psychologists was examined. The sex of an adolescent student was varied in the case studies, and two types of problems were presented in this 2 × 2 (sex of student by problem type) design. School psychologists were asked to read a case study and answer a series of questions relating to the extent of perceived disturbance and the importance of intervention. The main finding of the study was that it was rated as more important to intervene when the case study subject was a male, but there were no sex differences on the disturbance rating. Research and practical implications are discussed.