CONFRONTING THE UBIQUITY OF ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION AND SOCIAL MEDIA: ETHICAL AND LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR PSYCHOEDUCATIONAL PRACTICE

Most U.S. children and adults use computers and the Internet on a daily basis. The pervasiveness of electronic communication in a variety of contexts, including home and school, raises ethical and legal concerns for school psychologists and those in related fields of practice, because of the risks to privacy and confidentiality, boundaries, competence, and students’ well‐being. We detail the legal and ethical dilemmas school psychologists may face in electronic data storage and transmission, use of social networking, and efforts to address cyber bullying. We review relevant legal and ethical guidelines and provide recommendations for training and practice.     

TEACHERS’ EXPECTATIONS AND SELF‐EFFICACY FOR WORKING WITH BULLIES AND VICTIMS

Bullying is a significant concern in schools, and both bullies and victims are at risk for negative outcomes. In this study, 239 sixth‐grade teachers completed questionnaires about their perceptions of four components of school climate: high‐risk student behaviors, school‐wide barriers to learning, principal support, and cooperation among teachers. Teachers’ expectations and self‐efficacy for working effectively with both bullies and victims were assessed using case study vignettes. The results indicated that teachers’ perceptions of principal support were significantly related to teachers’ expectations and self‐efficacy for working with bullies. A graduate degree was also related to greater self‐efficacy for working with bullies. Administrators and school psychologists should consider the role of perceived principal support as an important factor in influencing teachers’ expectations and beliefs in working with bullies.     

Group counseling in the schools: Legal,ethical, and treatment issues in school practice

School psychologists are interested in providing effective and efficient direct services to children. With a wide spectrum of psychological problems impacting children, group counseling represents one viable and valuable intervention. Given the complexity of group counseling, many schools and school psychologists are interested in legal and ethical issues impacting group interventions. From the attainment of appropriate consents for counseling to ethical dilemmas, the challenges involved in direct services are large. This article reviews mental health issues transforming children's mental health, considers differing group counseling models and stages of group development, and examines contemporary legal and ethical dilemmas inherent in school practice. Uniquely, a question‐and‐answer format is used to highlight legal issues for practice. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

CURRENT AND FUTURE SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGISTS’ PREPAREDNESS TO WORK WITH LGBT STUDENTS: ROLE OF EDUCATION AND GAY‐STRAIGHT ALLIANCES

This study sought to assess current and future school psychologists’ attitudes toward and preparedness to address the needs of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) students in schools. Two‐hundred seventy‐nine school psychologists (n = 162, 58%) and school psychology graduate students (n = 117, 42%) were included in the study. Participants completed measures of attitudes toward LGBT students, preparedness to address the needs of LGBT youth, and social desirability. For both school psychologists and graduate students, increased education was associated with improved attitudes and increased preparedness to treat LGBT youth. For school psychologists, presence of a gay‐straight alliance was associated with increased knowledge about LGBT youth, as well as higher ratings of preparedness to treat LGBT youth; the same associations did not hold true for the graduate students. These findings have implications for the training and practice of school psychologists in addressing the needs of LGBT youth in schools.     

ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN A THREE‐TIERED APPROACH TO SCHOOL DISCIPLINE POLICY AND PRACTICE

Research indicates that school discipline policies and practices have a significant influence on both student and school functioning. The purpose of this article is to uncover how the ethical standards guiding the field of school psychology inform school decisions about discipline in a three‐tiered approach. Various discipline approaches, empirical research evaluating the effectiveness of these approaches, and the role of school psychologists in school discipline decision making are reviewed. Ultimately, this integration of theory, empirical research, and ethical standards points to the importance of creating comprehensive and individualized school discipline policies that apply ethically sound practices at all three tiers of intervention. Implications for practicing school psychologists are discussed.     

Everyone Playing in Class: a group play provision for enhancing the emotional well‐being of children in school

‘Everyone Playing in Class’ is an unstructured free play based provision for small classes or groups. The intervention involves training staff in attachment theory, presenting up‐to‐date research findings on the role of play in emotional well‐being and relationship building, as well as teaching reflective communication skills. In this article Alison Woolf, who is a Member of British Association of Play Therapists (BAPT), describes how these weekly class play sessions can provide experiences that are beneficial for staff and for pupils. The essential elements that create the therapeutic intervention are described and explored, and set in context through their relationship to SEAL. The ethical considerations of school staff providing therapeutic opportunities are considered. Results of pre‐ and post‐intervention assessments are given, and the responses of staff and pupils to the sessions are summarised. Results show improvements for pupils in the areas of self‐esteem and of social development. Most significantly the results demonstrate an increase in the staff's ability to understand and respond to the children in their class.     

Racial/Ethnic Discrimination and Adolescents’ Well‐Being: The Role of Cross‐Ethnic Friendships and Friends’ Experiences of Discrimination

There is an extensive body of work documenting the negative socioemotional and academic consequences of perceiving racial/ethnic discrimination during adolescence, but little is known about how the larger peer context conditions such effects. Using peer network data from 252 eighth graders (85% Latino, 11% African American, 5% other race/ethnicity), the present study examined the moderating role of cross‐ethnic friendships and close friends’ experiences of discrimination in the link between adolescents’ perceptions of discrimination and well‐being. Cross‐ethnic friendships and friends’ experiences of discrimination generally served a protective role, buffering the negative effects of discrimination on both socioemotional well‐being and school outcomes. Overall, results highlight the importance of considering racial/ethnic‐related aspects of adolescents’ friendships when studying interpersonal processes closely tied to race/ethnicity.     

SCHOOL‐BASED TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY AND CONCUSSION MANAGEMENT PROGRAM

Traumatic brain injuries (TBIs), including concussions, can result in a constellation of physical, cognitive, emotional, and behavioral symptoms that affect students’ well‐being and performance at school. Despite these effects, school personnel remain underprepared identify, educate, and assist this population of students. This article describes a model of service delivery for students with TBI in a large urban school district. The district's TBI Program and Concussion Management Team address unique issues related to assessment, intervention, and transition planning for this population of students, as well as prevention and education efforts in the district as a whole. This model involved designating a district‐level school psychologist to serve as a point person for TBI cases, which improved accurate identification of students with TBI, facilitated coordination of concussion management efforts, and provided a smooth transition for students with TBI from the hospital or clinic back to school. Suggestions for increasing school psychologists’ involvement with TBI cases are proposed, including strategies for serving as team leaders, for coordinating progress monitoring, and for training others in the school community about TBIs.     

Chinese student teachers’ perspectives on becoming a teacher in the practicum: emotional and ethical dimensions of identity shaping

This research examines the emotional and ethical dimensions of identity shaping in student teachers’ teaching practicum. By interviewing seven Chinese student teachers who had just finished their student teaching practice, the research examines the participants’ emotional experiences and the ethical dilemmas they encountered in their practicum. Specifically, for the emotional aspect of professional identity formation, the student teachers experienced eagerness and anxiety at the beginning of the teaching practicum, shock and embarrassment once teaching, and guilt and regret towards the end of the practicum. Alongside the influx of emotional experiences in the practicum, the researcher identified four paired ethical dilemmas that the participants were trapped within: (1) tensions between classroom authority and the ethic of caring; (2) acting as a community member or an ‘outsider’; (3) working as an office assistant or a ‘real teacher’; (4) conflicting pedagogies regarding teaching different tracks of students. Finally, implications for teacher education are briefly discussed.     

THE USE OF EVIDENCED‐BASED PRACTICES IN THE PROVISION OF SOCIAL SKILLS TRAINING FOR STUDENTS WITH AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER AMONG SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGISTS

This study aimed to explore school psychologists’ use of evidence‐based practices (EBP), specifically in the area of social skills training, for students with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Participants were 220 school psychologists practicing in public school settings who provided social skills training to students with ASD. Participants were recruited through e‐mail solicitations and completed surveys administered on‐line. Results indicated that 47% of the participants reported that their graduate program did not provide courses including content addressing social skills training for students with ASD, and 58% did not receive training on the topic during their internship. The most and least frequently endorsed EBP reported were the provision of clear and measurable treatment objectives and regular communication with parents, respectively. Greater use of EBP was reported when school districts perceived implementing EBP as important. Implications of findings for training programs of school psychologists, school districts, and individual school psychologists are discussed, as well as implications for future research.     

THE PROVISION OF COUNSELING SERVICES AMONG SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGISTS: AN EXPLORATION OF TRAINING,CURRENT PRACTICES,AND PERCEPTIONS

Although school psychologists have been called on in recent literature to assume a leadership role in a collective and comprehensive effort to address students’ mental health needs, many practitioners find that their professional roles continue to be narrowly focused on special education‐related activities, such as individualized assessment and eligibility determination. Meanwhile, students’ mental health needs have never been greater. The current study focused specifically on school psychologists’ provision of school‐based counseling, an activity that has been shown to be effective in addressing students’ mental health needs, as well as a professional role that many practitioners have expressed a desire to expand. A national sample of school psychologists responded to an Internet survey related to various aspects of counseling service delivery, including their training to provide services, current practices, and perceptions of the importance for school psychologists to assume the responsibility of providing school‐based counseling services.     

ADMINISTRATIVE PRESSURE TO PRACTICE UNETHICALLY AND BURNOUT WITHIN THE PROFESSION OF SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY

This investigation involved the surveying of school psychology practitioners (N = 291) to determine the possible existence of a relationship between administrative pressure to practice unethically and impaired occupational health, as manifested in elevated levels of burnout, job dissatisfaction, and intent to exit the workforce. Almost one‐third of participants claimed to have been pressured to behave unethically, with directives most commonly consisting of instructions to withhold recommendations for support services and to agree with inappropriate special education placement decisions. Practitioners who experienced administrative pressure reported higher levels of burnout, less satisfaction with their current position and the profession, and a greater desire to leave their job and the field of school psychology. The findings are presented within the context of current and projected shortages of practicing school psychologists. Implications for preventing burnout and promoting school psychologists’ occupational well‐being are discussed.     

School psychology interns’ characterizations of family–school partnerships

School psychologists are encouraged to establish family–school partnerships with culturally and linguistically diverse families across the spectrum of child development. Partnerships and collaborations have been described in prior literature as bidirectional, nonhierarchical relationships between families and schools, expanding on the more traditional but limited concept of unidirectional parent involvement in school. This qualitative study describes five specialist‐level school psychology interns’ experiences facilitating family–school partnerships with culturally diverse families during their internship year. Findings focus on defining and identifying characteristics of family–school partnerships from interns’ recollections of their lived experiences. Five salient elements characterized the practical experience of a partnership: requisite situations for partnering, stakeholder involvement, intern's actions, intern's emotional responses, and the outcome or quality of the family–school partnership. These findings have implications for the training of school psychologists and the ways that family–school interactions are conceptualized both in training programs and in school settings.     

Factors associated with school psychologists' perceptions of campus violence

Recent concern about school violence has increased demands on school psychologists to respond to safety concerns on their school campuses. In this study, 123 school psychologists responded to a survey about their perceptions, experiences, and readiness to meaningfully address school violence. School psychologists reported that they do not worry about their personal safety at school (78%), but most felt unprepared to deal with school violence (73%) and had received no specialized training in this area (85%). A principal components analysis of the types of violence school psychologists perceived to occur on their campuses identified a range of incidents from bullying to antisocial behavior. School psychologists working in inner-city schools were more likely to believe that their schools had high levels of violence (45.6%) compared with those working in urban-not inner-city (14.3%), suburban (4.9%), or rural (0%) schools. Recommendations to prepare school psychologists to help prevent, reduce, and respond to campus violence are discussed. © 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

A QUALITATIVE STUDY OF FACILITATORS AND BARRIERS RELATED TO COMPREHENSIVE AND INTEGRATED SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGICAL SERVICES

Recent studies indicate that the majority of school psychologists’ time continues to be dedicated to SPED related activities. Despite ongoing calls for school psychologists to expand their roles, why many practitioners do not deliver more comprehensive services is not well understood. This qualitative study investigated facilitators of and barriers to comprehensive and integrated services using the National Association of School Psychologists Model for Comprehensive and Integrated School Psychological Services as the guiding framework. Thirteen full‐time, school‐based practitioners from across the US participated in semi‐structured interviews. Constant‐comparative analysis was used to generate themes. Results indicated that practitioners experienced a number of systemic barriers to (e.g., heavy caseload; inconsistent district policies, priorities, and role definitions; lack of stakeholder involvement) and facilitators of (e.g., resources, graduate training and professional development) comprehensive and integrated service delivery. Participants’ perspectives regarding changes needed to expand their services focused on systemic issues as well. Implications for research and practitioners’ efforts to advocate for systems change are discussed.     

Navigating the complexity of qualitative research in postmodern contexts: assemblage,critical reflexivity,and communion as guides

For graduate students and other emerging qualitative researchers, the ever-evolving and sometimes conflicting perspectives, methodologies, and practices within various post-positivist frameworks (e.g. feminist, critical, Indigenous, participatory) can be overwhelming. Qualitative researchers working within postmodern contexts of multiplicity and ambiguity are tasked with working through challenges – related to methods, interpretation, and representation – throughout the research process. Through examining related literature and incorporating my own experiences, I explore ethical dilemmas that social justice-oriented qualitative researchers may encounter as a result of conflicting multiplicities of difference among researcher(s), participants, and readers. Such dilemmas include incongruent interpretations between participants and researchers, and participants’ and researchers’ conflicting desires about what should be shared, intercultural (mis)interpretations, rapport issues, and conflicts between research life and home life. I consider how combining the practices of attending to assemblages, engaging in critical reflexivity, and centralizing communion may be useful in navigating relationships and ethical dilemmas in qualitative research.     

USING CONSULTATION TO SUPPORT ENGLISH LEARNERS: THE EXPERIENCES OF BILINGUAL SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGISTS

Through semi‐structured interviews, this study explored 11 bilingual school psychologists’ (BSPs) consultation experiences with teachers of English learners (EL) to determine referral concerns, recommendations made, challenges encountered, preparation experiences, and skills most needed. The most common referral issue concerned students’ academic performance and teachers’ attempts to parse out language acquisition difficulties from learning problems. Principal consultation challenges included the scarcity of trained professionals, teacher bias, and the stress of competing school priorities. BSPs relied most on their interpersonal skills and relationship building skills, as well as their knowledge of EL‐focused interventions and their problem identification skills. Recommendations to their monolingual school psychology colleagues included the need to actively seek out a) language and culture resources, b) relevant professional development opportunities, and c) consultations with fellow BSPs. Study limitations and implications are discussed.     

The 2002 revision of the American Psychological Association's ethics code: Implications for school psychologists

The Ethical Principles for Psychologists and Code of Conduct has been recently revised. The organization of the code changed, and the language was made more specific. A number of points relevant to school psychology are explicitly stated in the code. A clear advantage of including these items in the code is the assistance to school psychologists negotiating ethical dilemmas in their work setting. This article provides an overview of the revisions in the code most applicable to school psychologists and a detailed analysis of three areas of the code: psychological assessment, the implications and application of the modifiers in the code that guide ethical decision making and correct conduct, and diversity issues. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Psychol Schs 42: 433–445, 2005.     

Juggling personal life and professionalism: Ethical implications for rural school psychologists

Rural communities often contain unique features that separate them from more urban communities. Although a body of research is devoted to ethical considerations for psychologists working in rural communities as a whole, much less current research is focused on working in rural schools. This paper specifically highlights ethical considerations regarding competence, multiple relationships, and confidentiality. Given that access to services within the community may be limited, school psychologists may encounter cases that are outside of their area of competence. Furthermore, due to the interconnectedness present in many rural communities, psychologists frequently have multiple relationships with those whom they have professional contact. Confidentiality may be compromised when families and school personnel also have multiple relationships. These factors must be considered by psychologists working in rural schools, and steps must be taken at the outset of practice to ensure ethical compliance. More specific means of obtaining this compliance are discussed in this paper.