Combined online and in‐class pretesting improves exam performance in general psychology

This study examined the effect of distributed questioning on learning and retention in a college lecture course. A total of 48 question pairs were presented over four exams. The 16 question pairs associated with each of the three blocks of the course appeared on the block exams, and all 48 appeared on the final exam. The two questions in each pair were related to each other, so that knowing the answer to one question usually implied knowing the answer to the other. One question in each pair was included in an experimental condition, in which questions were presented online, in class, or both online and in class, before appearing in exams. These conditions were counter‐balanced across the sample. The control questions appeared only in exams. Providing a question online in advance of class, as well as in class, had a significant long‐term effect on the probability of knowing the answers to both experimental and control questions when they appeared in exams. These results demonstrate that coordinated online and in‐class instruction can significantly improve exam performance. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that distributed instruction creates more robust memory traces, rather than the hypothesis that it creates additional memory traces.     

Testing to enhance retention in human anatomy

Recent work in cognitive psychology has shown that repeatedly testing one's knowledge is a powerful learning aid and provides substantial benefits for retention of the material. To apply this in a human anatomy course for medical students, 39 fill-in-the-blank quizzes of about 50 questions each, one for each region of the body, and four about the nervous system, were developed. The quizzes were optional, and no credit was awarded. They were posted online using Blackboard, which provided feedback, and they were very popular. To determine whether the quizzes had any effect on retention, they were given in a controlled setting to 21 future medical and dental students. The weekly quizzes included questions on regional anatomy and an expanded set of questions on the nervous system. Each question about the nervous system was given three times, in a slightly different form each time. The second quiz was given approximately half an hour after the first one, and the third was given one week after the second to assess retention. The quizzes were unpopular, but students showed robust improvement on the questions about the nervous system. The scores increased by almost 9% on the second quiz, with no intervention except viewing the correct answers. The scores were 29% higher on the third quiz than on the first, and there was also a positive correlation between the grades on the quizzes and the final examination. Thus, repeated testing is an effective strategy for learning and retaining information about human anatomy.     

Dividing attention in the classroom reduces exam performance

The intrusion of internet-enabled electronic devices (laptop, tablet, and cell phone) has transformed the modern college lecture into a divided attention task. This study measured the effect of using an electronic device for a non-academic purpose during class on subsequent exam performance. In a two-section college course, electronic devices were permitted in half the lectures, so the effect of the devices was assessed in a within-student, within-item counterbalanced experimental design. Dividing attention between an electronic device and the classroom lecture did not reduce comprehension of the lecture, as measured by within-class quiz questions. Instead, divided attention reduced long-term retention of the classroom lecture, which impaired subsequent unit exam and final exam performance. Students self-reported whether they had used an electronic device in each class. Exam performance was significantly worse than the no-device control condition both for students who did and did not use electronic devices during that class.     

Assessment of learning gains associated with independent exam analysis in introductory biology

This study evaluates the impact of an independent postmidterm question analysis exercise on the ability of students to answer subsequent exam questions on the same topics. It was conducted in three sections (～400 students/section) of introductory biology. Graded midterms were returned electronically, and each student was assigned a subset of questions answered incorrectly by more than 40% of the class to analyze as homework. The majority of questions were at Bloom's application/analysis level; this exercise therefore emphasized learning at these higher levels of cognition. Students in each section answered final exam questions matched by topic to all homework questions, providing a within-class control group for each question. The percentage of students who correctly answered the matched final exam question was significantly higher (p < 0.05) in the Topic Analysis versus Control Analysis group for seven of 19 questions. We identified two factors that influenced activity effectiveness: 1) similarity in topic emphasis of the midterm-final exam question pair and 2) quality of the completed analysis homework. Our data suggest that this easy-to-implement exercise will be useful in large-enrollment classes to help students develop self-regulated learning skills. Additional strategies to help introductory students gain a broader understanding of topic areas are discussed.     

Does the presentation style of questions inserted into text influence understanding and retention of science concepts?

The purpose of this research was to determine the relative effects of the presentation style of questions inserted into text materials for students in university introductory biology. The sample was randomly assigned to seven treatment groups of approximately equal size and read a 2,354-word passage on bacterial adaptations taken from a popular university general biology textbook. Experimental treatment groups read the same passage with (1) questions placed at the beginning of selected paragraphs and with the questions presented with (2) underlining, (3) in uppercase, (4) set above the paragraph, (5) underlined and set above, and (6) set above in uppercase respectively. The criterion variable was a 20-item multiple-choice exam with five possible answers per question given once to all students immediately after they read the passage and again exactly four weeks later. Presentation strategy groups were contrasted against the reading without questions groups. Four of the six groups reading with questions at the beginning of the paragraph scored significantly higher on the test given immediately after the reading than the group reading without questions. There were no significant differences between any of the group scores for the test given four weeks after reading. Other differences in results between these strategies and implications for text writers are discussed.     

Testing the ecological validity of teacher-provided versus student-generated postquestions in reading college science text

This study compared the achievement of high- and low-reading-ability students in two classes of a one-semester introductory college biology course after they either received and used teacher-provided questions posed at various taxonomic levels on textual reading assigned over a five-week period (Group 1) or learned via training to generate and use their own questions at the identical taxonomic levels based on the same text over the same period of time (Group 2). Independent variables included (a) form of questioning (teacher provided and self-generated), (b) reading ability (low and high), and (c) question type (referent, literal, interpretive, inferential, and self-critical). Dependent variables included scores from weekly quizzes and from a summative examination. Results indicated that (a) training students to generate and answer their own questions based on text reading had a favorable effect on their midrange (weekly quiz) performance; (b) relative to long-range (summative exam) performance, training students to generate and answer their own questions based on study reading was no more efficacious than providing students with questions based on the same text; and (c) teacher-provided questions at the literal level facilitated the acquisition of intended and incidental discrimination material better than teacher-provided questions at any other taxonomic level.     

Quizzes Used in Oral English Assessment in EFL

In order to find out the best way to assess students’ oral achievement and to see if quiz can be used as a valid measurement of oral ability,we conducted an experiment.Quizzes were given to students each week.The results of final exam and that of quizzes were compared to see if there is discrepancy between the two.The results of our experiment showed a high correlation between students’ quiz scores and exam scores.The class teacher can very well predict how a student will perform in the final exam.A way to assess students’ oral achievement is also suggested.     

An Evaluation of Two Hands-On Lab Styles for Plant Biodiversity in Undergraduate Biology

We compared learning cycle and expository formats for teaching about plant biodiversity in an inquiry-oriented university biology lab class (n = 465). Both formats had preparatory lab activities, a hands-on lab, and a postlab with reflection and argumentation. Learning was assessed with a lab report, a practical quiz in lab, and a multiple-choice exam in the concurrent lecture. Attitudes toward biology and treatments were also assessed. We used linear mixed-effect models to determine impacts of lab style on lower-order cognition (LO) and higher-order cognition (HO) based on Bloom''s taxonomy. Relative to the expository treatment, the learning cycle treatment had a positive effect on HO and a negative effect on LO included in lab reports; a positive effect on transfer of LO from the lab report to the quiz; negative impacts on LO quiz performance and on attitudes toward the lab; and a higher degree of perceived difficulty. The learning cycle treatment had no influence on transfer of HO from lab report to quiz or exam; quiz performance on HO questions; exam performance on LO and HO questions; and attitudes toward biology as a science. The importance of LO as a foundation for HO relative to these lab styles is addressed.     

The effects of features of examination questions on the performance of students with dyslexia

This research investigated whether features of examination questions influence students with dyslexia differently to others, potentially affecting whether they have a fair opportunity to show their knowledge, understanding and skills. A number of science examination questions were chosen. For some questions two slightly different versions were created. A total of 54 students considered by their teachers to have dyslexia and a matched control group of 51 students took the test under exam conditions. A dyslexia screening assessment was administered where possible and some students were interviewed. Facility values and Rasch analysis were used to compare performance between the versions of the same question and between those with and without dyslexia. Chi‐square statistics found no statistically significant differences in performance between groups or between question versions. However, some tentative implications for good practice can be inferred (e.g. avoiding ambiguous pronouns, using bullet points).     

Articulating Scientific Reasoning Improves Student Learning in an Undergraduate Anatomy and Physiology Course

In many life science classrooms, instructors rely upon lecture presentations to efficiently present course content. Students, in this case, act as passive learners with little opportunity to test their knowledge for gaps or misconceptions. The goal of the project described here was to determine whether a collaborative quiz protocol that guided students to discuss their understanding with their peers would improve learning and academic performance. The project took place during a single semester and was composed of two studies: a preliminary study that incorporated short-answer quizzes into the curriculum and a comprehensive study that incorporated short-answer quizzes and justify/explain quizzes in which students were expected to select an answer and then justify or explain it. Students took all quizzes twice, first independently and then collaboratively with classmate(s). Learning was assessed using multiple-choice exam questions based upon quiz topics. Students scored significantly higher on exam questions associated with justify/explain quiz topics than on those associated with short-answer quiz topics.     

Time pressure in scenario-based online construction safety quizzes and its effect on students’ performance

Online quizzes have been shown to be effective learning and assessment approaches. However, if scenario-based online construction safety quizzes do not include time pressure similar to real-world situations, they reflect situations too ideally. The purpose of this paper is to compare engineering students’ performance when carrying out an online construction safety quiz with time pressure versus an online construction safety quiz without time pressure. Two versions of an online construction safety quiz are developed and administered to randomly assigned engineering students based on a quasi-experimental post-test design. The findings contribute to scenario-based learning and assessment of construction safety in four ways. First, the results confirm earlier findings that ‘intrinsic stress’ does not seem to impair students’ performance. Second, students who carry out the online construction safety quiz with time pressure are less likely to ‘learn by trial and error'. Third, students exposed to time pressure appreciate that they become better prepared for real life. Finally, preparing students to work under time pressure is an important industry requirement. The results of this study should encourage engineering educators to explore and implement ways to include time pressure in scenario-based online quizzes and learning.     

Teaching students how to study: a workshop on information processing and self-testing helps students learn

We implemented a "how to study" workshop for small groups of students (6-12) for N = 93 consenting students, randomly assigned from a large introductory biology class. The goal of this workshop was to teach students self-regulating techniques with visualization-based exercises as a foundation for learning and critical thinking in two areas: information processing and self-testing. During the workshop, students worked individually or in groups and received immediate feedback on their progress. Here, we describe two individual workshop exercises, report their immediate results, describe students' reactions (based on the workshop instructors' experience and student feedback), and report student performance on workshop-related questions on the final exam. Students rated the workshop activities highly and performed significantly better on workshop-related final exam questions than the control groups. This was the case for both lower- and higher-order thinking questions. Student achievement (i.e., grade point average) was significantly correlated with overall final exam performance but not with workshop outcomes. This long-term (10 wk) retention of a self-testing effect across question levels and student achievement is a promising endorsement for future large-scale implementation and further evaluation of this "how to study" workshop as a study support for introductory biology (and other science) students.     

The relationship of deep and surface study approaches on factual and applied test‐bank multiple‐choice question performance

With the advent of online test banks and large introductory classes, instructors have often turned to textbook publisher‐generated multiple‐choice question (MCQ) exams in their courses. Multiple‐choice questions are often divided into categories of factual or applied, thereby implicating levels of cognitive processing. This investigation examined the influence student study approaches have on performance of shallow compared to deep, cognitive process outcomes measured by scores on factual versus application MCQ test bank questions respectively. Fifty‐six introduction to psychology students, aged 18–52 years, completed a modified version of the Revised Two‐Factor Study Process Questionnaire (R‐SPQ‐2F) to access deep or surface study approaches. Mid‐term and final exam MCQ were equally divided between factual and application questions from the textbook publisher test bank. Overall, students performed significantly better on factual MCQ, with older students achieving higher factual and applied scores. Results suggest younger students tend to use a surface approach to study, with reproduction of what was taught to meet minimum requirements. With age statistically controlled, analyses demonstrated that the surface learning approach negatively impacts MCQ performance on questions categorised as factual and applied more than a deep learning approach benefits MCQ performance.     

Regulating interest when learning online: Potential motivation and performance trade-offs

Online learning may be particularly sensitive to self-regulatory trade-offs between maintaining interest and performance. Undergraduates in online or on-campus sections of the same course rated strategies used to motivate studying for the first exam, and interest after the first exam and at semester's end. First exam and final class grades were obtained. We compared online and on-campus students in reported use of strategies to enhance the importance of studying-related outcomes (goals-defined) and to enhance the studying experience (experience-defined). The latter included an Internet-based strategy (i.e., making studying more enjoyable by exploring class web page). Online and on-campus students did not differ in reported use of outcome-focused strategies but online students were more likely to report exploring the class web page. For online students, greater exploration was associated with higher interest but lower first exam grades, which predicted final interest and grades. Implications for regulating interest and online learning are discussed.     

Crib sheets and exam performance in a data structures course

In this paper, we study the relationship between the use of “crib sheets” or “cheat sheets” and performance on in-class exams. Our extensive survey of the existing literature shows that it is not decisive on the questions of when or whether crib sheets actually help students to either perform better on an exam or better learn the material. We report on our own detailed analysis for a body of crib sheets created for the final exam in a junior-level Data Structures and Algorithms course. We wanted to determine whether there is any feature of the crib sheets that correlates to good exam scores. Exam performance was compared against a number of potential indicators for quality in a crib sheet. We have found that students performed significantly better on questions at the comprehension level of Bloom’s taxonomy when their crib sheet contained good information on the topic, while performance on questions at higher levels of the taxonomy did not show correlation to crib sheet contents. We have also seen that students at certain levels of performance on the final exam (specifically, medium-to-high performance) did relatively better on certain questions than other students at that performance level when they had good coverage of that question’s topic on their crib sheet.     

Peer Learning and Support of Technology in an Undergraduate Biology Course to Enhance Deep Learning

This study offers an innovative and sustainable instructional model for an introductory undergraduate course. The model was gradually implemented during 3 yr in a research university in a large-lecture biology course that enrolled biology majors and nonmajors. It gives priority to sources not used enough to enhance active learning in higher education: technology and the students themselves. Most of the lectures were replaced with continuous individual learning and 1-mo group learning of one topic, both supported by an interactive online tutorial. Assessment included open-ended complex questions requiring higher-order thinking skills that were added to the traditional multiple-choice (MC) exam. Analysis of students’ outcomes indicates no significant difference among the three intervention versions in the MC questions of the exam, while students who took part in active-learning groups at the advanced version of the model had significantly higher scores in the more demanding open-ended questions compared with their counterparts. We believe that social-constructivist learning of one topic during 1 mo has significantly contributed to student deep learning across topics. It developed a biological discourse, which is more typical to advanced stages of learning biology, and changed the image of instructors from “knowledge transmitters” to “role model scientists.”     

Modifying the Monte Carlo Quiz to Increase Student Motivation,Participation, and Content Retention

Fernald developed the Monte Carlo Quiz format to enhance retention, encourage students to prepare for class, read with intention, and organize information in psychology classes. This author modified the Monte Carlo Quiz, combined it with the Minute Paper, and applied it to various courses. Students write quiz questions as part of the Minute Paper and the instructor selects questions to include in the next day's quiz. Rolling a die determines if the quiz will be taken on a particular day. If yes, a second roll of the die determines the quiz question answered. There was improved performance on quizzes and tests while students favorably reported that this format increases their out-of-class preparation and content retention.     

Modified use of team‐based learning for effective delivery of medical gross anatomy and embryology

Team‐based learning (TBL) is an instructional strategy that combines independent out‐of‐class preparation for in‐class discussion in small groups. This approach has been successfully adopted by a number of medical educators. This strategy allowed us to eliminate anatomy lectures and incorporate small‐group active learning. Although our strategy is a modified use of classical TBL, in the text, we use the standard terminology of TBL for simplicity. We have modified classical TBL to fit our curricular needs and approach. Anatomy lectures were replaced with TBL activities that required pre‐class reading of assigned materials, an individual self‐assessment quiz, discussion of learning issues derived from the reading assignments, and then the group retaking the same quiz for discussion and deeper learning. Students' performances and their educational experiences in the TBL format were compared with the traditional lecture approach. We offer several in‐house unit exams and a final comprehensive subject exam provided by the National Board of Medical Examiners. The students performed better in all exams following the TBL approach compared to traditional lecture‐based teaching. Students acknowledged that TBL encouraged them to study regularly, allowed them to actively teach and learn from peers, and this served to improve their own exam performances. We found that a TBL approach in teaching anatomy allowed us to create an active learning environment that helped to improve students' performances. Based on our experience, other preclinical courses are now piloting TBL. Anat Sci Ed 1:3–9, 2008. © 2007 American Association of Anatomists.     

Multiple-choice exams: an obstacle for higher-level thinking in introductory science classes

Learning science requires higher-level (critical) thinking skills that need to be practiced in science classes. This study tested the effect of exam format on critical-thinking skills. Multiple-choice (MC) testing is common in introductory science courses, and students in these classes tend to associate memorization with MC questions and may not see the need to modify their study strategies for critical thinking, because the MC exam format has not changed. To test the effect of exam format, I used two sections of an introductory biology class. One section was assessed with exams in the traditional MC format, the other section was assessed with both MC and constructed-response (CR) questions. The mixed exam format was correlated with significantly more cognitively active study behaviors and a significantly better performance on the cumulative final exam (after accounting for grade point average and gender). There was also less gender-bias in the CR answers. This suggests that the MC-only exam format indeed hinders critical thinking in introductory science classes. Introducing CR questions encouraged students to learn more and to be better critical thinkers and reduced gender bias. However, student resistance increased as students adjusted their perceptions of their own critical-thinking abilities.     

两种英美文学课程考核方式之比较

结合研讨式教学理念,对传统的英美文学课程考核方式进行了改革,主要增加了信息搜集与汇报、课堂讨论与陈述、课后心得与提问三项内容,将考核覆盖到课程学习的全过程。通过比较传统考核与改革后考核方式的异同,可以发现后者在督促学生学习、考察学生能力方面更具优越性。