Towards an interactive agricultural science

Abstract

In all, a constructivist epistemology leads to a completely different approach that includes the conventional one, but ultimately leads to very different choices. I call this approach “interactive agricultural science”. Box 2 sums up its main features.

Interactive agricultural science is internally consistent. Just as the conventional paradigm, it embraces a whole range of mutually related elements at various levels of abstraction, from epistemology to the practical points of departure for rewarding desired scientific work and for training students.

The challenge to agricultural science is together to further construct and operationalise this paradigm. That, as I hope to have made clear, is a condition for achieving our new mission: to contribute to a change in direction which saves us from becoming Norsemen in Greenland.     

Transformations in higher education in agricultural and food sciences in Central and Eastern Europe

Abstract

Current changes in agricultural and food science higher education in Central and Eastern Europe are interesting for the analysis of the repercussions of post communist economic and social transition, particularly in the adaptation and restructuring of scientific and technical education.

Using an institutional approach and referring to their experiences of these educational systems, the authors provide a Western view of current transformations and areas of development of higher education in agricultural and food sciences in the countries concerned. The emergence of a new social demand and of new systems of access to employment implies re-evaluation and adaptation of former training models. The authors suggest that the current reflection on the question should focus on three key issues:

• -redefinition of the role and function of managers in the agricultural and food economic sector;

• -replacement of a production-oriented approach by a more comprehensive approach to the problem of rural development;

• -recognition of the educational value of biological sciences as both models and tools for the acquisition of knowledge and the management of complex systems.

     

Responding to change: a new role for agricultural colleges in England and Wales

Abstract

Rural labour market changes are creating a demand for new and more flexible education and training opportunities. With the decline in agricultural production and the consequent reduction in demand for agricultural education, agricultural colleges in England and Wales are considering what their future role will be as providers of education and training for a diversified rural economy. To what extent and in what ways agricultural colleges are adapting to their new role and the factors which inhibit or facilitate institutional change was the subject of a research project undertaken in England and Wales between 1990 and 1992. The results show considerable variation between colleges in the way they are responding to change. This is reflected in the manner in which colleges perceive themselves, their mission and policy, how they perceive their constituency and the links they have with this constituency, as well as their ability to identify new training needs and provide relevant, flexible and more accessible learning opportunities to meet these needs.     

Reorienting agricultural extension curricula in India

Abstract

This article discusses how extension should be taught at the undergraduate, M.Sc. and Ph.D level in India. Major changes are needed to prepare students to work in a rapidly changing environment. Extension education is at present in a crisis, because it has not yet adjusted to these changes. As extension graduates are not prepared to perform the roles the market demands, they have difficulties to find a job. In order to prepare the students for the present needs, more training is needed in participatory extension approaches, organizing farmers’ groups, planning extension strategies to meet farmers’ needs, Human Resource Development and the use of Information and Communication Technologies. The students ought to learn how to apply theories in these areas in the field situation. For this purpose not only agricultural graduates, but also other social scientists should participate in teaching extension. It should become clear which students will be trained to become an extension field worker, and extension manager or an extension researcher. J Agr Educ Ext (2000, 7 2, pp 69–78)     

Facilitating integrated agricultural technology development through participatory research

Purpose: In this paper, we discuss the role of participatory research in integrated agricultural technology development using the example of a solar fruit drying project in Mozambique.

Design/methodology/approach: We engage in seven participatory exercises with groups of farmers from two farmers’ associations in Inharrime district in Mozambique to identify their needs for solar fruit drying that are crucial for solar dryer technology design. We focus in the analysis on three of these exercises including a daily schedule exercise, SWOT (Strengths Weaknesses Opportunities and Threats) analysis and technology requirement exercise.

Findings: Participatory research takes a dual function for integrated agricultural technology development. First, it can help to identify the technology needs of farmers and second it can enable the exchange and creation of different sets of knowledge for agricultural technology development between multiple stakeholders.

Practical implications: Participatory research provides a tool for joint knowledge exchange and creation, which allows the identified technology requirements to be translated into practical technology design.

Theoretical implications: This paper extends the concept of integrated research to integrated agricultural technology development and shows how participatory research is a tool that enables transdisciplinarity, which presents the most desired form of integrated research.

Originality: This research is highly relevant for researchers working in an interdisciplinary environment with agricultural technology development in cross-cultural contexts. From a meta-level perspective, it provides insights for joint and integrated technology development.     

Lessons for co-innovation in agricultural innovation systems: a multiple case study analysis and a conceptual model

Purpose: This paper highlights important lessons for co-innovation drawn from three ex-post case study innovation projects implemented within three sub-sectors of the primary industry sector in New Zealand.

Design/methodology/approach: The characteristics that fostered co-innovation in each innovation project case study were identified from semi-structured interviews conducted with key stakeholders in each project, iterative discussions to confirm the findings and secondary document analysis. Common themes from the three cases are examined in relation to innovation system structure and function analysis and agricultural innovation system (AIS) literature. This study builds on the literature attempting to overcome methodological challenges in the applied AIS research space.

Findings: The findings have implications for co-innovation in practice; that there needs to be network-level capability and legitimacy, an understanding of priorities between actors, and adequate resources, to ensure proposed outcomes are likely to be attained.

Practical implications: Practically, project leaders need to ensure they embed an appropriate mix of actors in the research program and they also need to create and encourage room for open and honest dialogue between these actors to develop a shared vision of the future.

Theoretical implications: A conceptual model is developed to highlight and simplify lessons that can inform future projects involving co-innovation approaches to create value in the primary industries and AIS more generally. This model is unique to the applied AIS research space and provides new insights on enhancing the potential value of a co-innovation approach.

Originality/value: The paper adds to current scholarly debates and provides insight to key actions stakeholders need to take to foster co-innovation processes for successful outcomes in extension.     

Multi-stakeholder process strengthens agricultural innovations and sustainable livelihoods of farmers in Southern Nigeria

Purpose: In this paper, we explore the strategic role of Multi-stakeholder processes (MSP) in agricultural innovations and how it has impacted livelihood assets’ (LAs) capital dynamics of stakeholders in platforms in West Africa.

Design/Methodology/Approach: We demonstrate how LA capitals and socio-economic dynamics induced by MSP can enhance cassava production efficiency but also create opportunities and challenges that influence platform dynamics and impacts. We use a multistage sampling procedure and sustainable livelihood model (e.g. stochastic frontier functions and Tobit regression) to analyse LA capital dynamics of the stakeholders.

Findings: We showed that the LA of the MSP participants (0.72) was found to be significantly higher (χ²?=?3.732, p?Practical implications: We recommend the institutionalization of MSP in the Agricultural Research for Development (AR4D) with more extension follow-up services so as to adequately and appropriately unleash the potentials in social capital networks that enable the development, effective dissemination and adoption of agricultural innovations.

Theoretical implications: This study suggests that soft-transfer of technologies seems to dominate at MSP inception. But at maturity, the results of the struggle between researchers and farmers would lead to co-reaction and community-based research. Consequently, the knowledge and power dynamics that take place within the MSP should be considered the centre of co-construction and platform dynamics.

Originality/Values: The study provided a practical experience on how MSP can be institutionalized in the AR4D programmes to support agricultural innovation systems and foster pro-poor growth and livelihoods.     

Participatory agricultural research and decentralisation in Vietnam

Abstract

Based on a conceptual framework, that describes the relationship between the effectiveness of up-scaling participation and implementing decentralisation, the objective of this paper is to analyse the effectiveness of decentralisation measures in the Agricultural Technology System (ATS) of Vietnam. It discusses whether the decentralisation efforts so far have enabled the rural population to express their options and take joint decisions in the sense of participation. The paper uses primary and secondary data, collected between November 2000 and June 2001. The paper first discusses the theoretical literature on up-scaling participation and decentralisation. Emphasis is given to highlight the links between the concepts of good governance in decentralisation and its effects on people's participation in the decision making process. Thereafter, the Vietnamese decentralisation measures are reviewed and it is assessed to which extent the agricultural sector and its relevant state agencies have benefited from these efforts. The experiences from the decentralisation activities is summarised. Whether decentralisation opened space for the rural people to express their opinions and to ensure that their preferences are incorporated in the ATS is specially considered. The paper closes with recommendations.     

Entering the occupational category of ‘Farmer’: new pathways through professional agricultural education in Ireland

Purpose: Understand the emergence of new potential career trajectories in the liberalised Irish dairy farming sector through analysis of the narratives of students of a Professional Diploma in Dairy Farm Management

Design/methodology/approach: A review of the literature highlights that entry to a working life in agriculture has been characterised by protracted farm succession processes; a strong association between being a farmer and owning land in the family name; lingering male identities esteeming manual labour; and a pragmatic need at farm level for manual work. The abolition of milk quota in 2015 was predicted to catalyse expansion of production on dairy farms with an increase in milk production; accompanied by a demand for qualified personnel. The BNIM method was employed.

Findings: Results confirm that agricultural education is perceived and experienced as offering new pathways for young farmers to enter the occupational category of ‘farmer’, helping to manoeuvre around the constraints of non-inheritance. The students’ narratives evidenced managerial identities, being strongly influenced by encountering management approaches through their agricultural education. All students desired to eventually own a farm someday and to be to employed as a professional dairy farm manager was a perceived as an intermediary goal.

Practical implication: Discontinuation of the traditional family farming model based on family farm/land ownership is not imminent even among a cohort qualified to become employed dairy farm managers.

Theoretical implication: This paper contributes to theoretical framework which highlights the shift in farmer masculine identity and the career trajectory of graduates of specialised agricultural education programmes.     

Gender differences in use and preferences of agricultural information sources in Pakistan

Purpose: Rural advisory services ensure agricultural information is disseminated to rural populations, yet they are less accessible to women. This research provides insight on gender differences in information access by investigating frequency of use and preference of agricultural information sources by gender in a rural setting, differentiated according to literacy and age. Design/Methodology/approach: This study interviewed 401 male/female individuals in farm households in Jhang and Bahawalpur district of Punjab, Pakistan in 2016. Findings: Men and women farmers’ use and preferences in accessing information sources are extremely different. Women hardly use sources for agricultural information, and value interpersonal communication from informal sources. In contrast, men use and value official agencies more. Radio, surprisingly, was very rarely used, contradicting previous findings of research elsewhere. Age and literacy affect differences between women more than it does between men, particularly for convenient locations to access information. Practical implications The study identified and refined major gender differences regarding use and preference for agricultural information in relation to age and literacy, and helps to articulate options to improve gender equality of access to agricultural information in Pakistan. Theoretical implications: The focus and outcomes regarding gender intersecting with age and literacy in agricultural information access imply the need for more refined socio-economic models, discerning and interrelating gender and other social dimensions beyond the standard of male-headed households. Originality/value: This paper adds to the growing body of evidence on information access according to gender, highlighting the need to investigate deeper socio-cultural issues around age and literacy.     

Planning agricultural education in India

Abstract

The study is an attempt to report the growth and status of agricultural education in India and to project a future scenario. The forecast made for trained agricultural manpower is based on socio-economic considerations which are then converted into an educational plan. Issues relating to educational policy to achieve supply-demand adjustments are subsequently discussed. Three main recommendations have emerged from this study. First, the number of diploma holders at the lower end of the professional ladder needs to be increased to cater for the social demand for more trained and readily available manpower to help clientele (farmers) to enhance the level of their awareness concerning technological developments in agriculture. Second, the number of specializations at postgraduate level needs to be decreased and agricultural education needs to be more broad based in commensuration with occupational demands. This would allow skilled and qualified manpower to be directed into areas of employment where they are needed most. Third, the participation of the private sector in the institutionalization of agricultural education may offer healthy competition to state supported agricultural universities and inculcate better entrepreneurship. Finally, recommendations pertaining to the job preferences of graduates and remedies to certain internal inconsistencies such as inbreeding in the system are also made.     

Teaching agricultural policy with the Case Method

Abstract

The central subject matter of the paper is the attempt to assess the learning gains exhibited by university students who were taught by the Case Method rather than the conventional lecture method in a relatively unpropitious non-case environment. Based on a systematic approach developed by educational psychologists, the project monitored the relative gains in terms of cognitive performance and change in motives and attitudes. The methodological approach is explained comprehensively and the quantitative results are discussed in a frank and an objective manner with a view to stimulating university teachers to rethink prevailing teaching methods and goals.     

Measuring the demand for agricultural information

Abstract

Networked learning aims to foster students’ knowledge construction processes as well as the quality of knowledge construction. In this respect, it is crucial to be able to analyse both aspects of networked learning. Based on theories on networked learning and the empirical work of relevant authors in this domain, two coding schemes are presented to analyse the nature of learning processes and the quality of knowledge construction in networked learning. The coding schemes were used to analyse the learning processes and learning results of students in an MSc course on land use planning at Wageningen University in which networked learning played an important role. The inter-rater reliability of both instruments appeared to be satisfactory. The relation between the two coding schemes is discussed and recommendations for future research and educational practice are formulated.     

Networked learning for agricultural extension: a framework for analysis and two cases

Purpose: This paper presents economic and pedagogical motivations for adopting information and communications technology (ICT)-mediated learning networks in agricultural education and extension. It proposes a framework for networked learning in agricultural extension and contributes a theoretical and case-based rationale for adopting the networked learning paradigm.

Design/methodology/approach: A review of the literature highlights the economic and pedagogical need for adopting a networked learning approach. Two examples are described to instantiate the language for learning networks: a small community of farmers in India and large Twitter community of Australian farmers.

Findings: This paper reviews evidence that successful networked learning interventions are already occurring within agricultural extension. It provides a framework for describing these interventions and for helping future designers of learning networks in agricultural extension.

Practical implication: Facilitation of learning networks can serve to achieve efficient agricultural extension that connects farmers across distances for constructivist learning. To realize these benefits, designers of learning networks need to consider set design, social design and epistemic design.

Theoretical implication: This paper contributes a theoretical framework for designing, implementing and analysing learning networks in agriculture. It does this by integrating existing ideas from networked learning and applying them to the agricultural context through examples.

Originality/value: This paper contributes an understanding of the value of networked learning for extension in terms of economic and pedagogical benefits. It provides a language for talking about learning networks that is useful for future researchers and for practitioners.     

A quantitative assessment of an outsourced agricultural extension service in the Umzimkhulu District of KwaZulu-Natal,South Africa

Purpose: This study evaluates the impact of an outsourced extension service delivered by Lima Rural Development Foundation (Lima) in the Umzimkhulu district of South Africa. The evaluation is conducted at both the household and program levels.

Design/methodology/approach: Household impacts were estimated using two-stage regression with instrumental variables to account for selection bias. Gains in household income were extrapolated to estimate the net incremental benefit of the program and its financial return at district level. These analyses were underpinned by a rigorous sampling design.

Findings: The results show that the outsourced extension service made a significant and substantial contribution to household crop income and net income. In addition, clients perceived a range of socio-economic benefits such as better diets, improved product quality, and job creation. Analysis of the financial cost and benefit of the extension service at district level suggests an annual net incremental benefit of R5 million (US$0.4 million), and a 95% probability that returns to the service exceeded 20% in 2012/2013.

Practical implications: These results suggest that there is good reason for donors to continue funding effective extension services to small farmers in areas of high agricultural potential.

Theoretical implications: This is an empirical study. It uses well-established methods to measure the impact but introduces a local economy multiplier to capture some of the indirect effects of agricultural extension.

Originality/value: This research is valuable as very few studies worldwide have evaluated the impact of agricultural extension services at both the farm and program levels.     

Knowledge for being,a strategy for higher agricultural education

Abstract

This paper reassesses the value of the popular Greek concept of being a sistimatikos person to face rural development challenges. It dwells on fieldwork with olive growers in Western Crete, where a study was carried out to appraise the socio-economic and ecological impact on regional development of organic olive oil production. Working sistimatika turned out to be essential for organic farmers to develop their enterprise. This notion comprises knowledge about what to do, which is made up of a clear vision and technical knowledge about how to organize the work, hard work, love, and finally an ability and desire to search for and learn whatever may be needed. The aspects love and learning capacity are usually unacknowledged in Western conceptions of development strategies informed by a so-called systems approach, but are, however, essential to arrive at what is headed for: specifically, in the Cretan case, the production of organic olive oil, and in general, the conceptualization and materialization of development alternatives for rural areas.     

Becoming an agricultural advisor – the rationale,the plan and the implementation of a model of reflective practice in extension higher education

Purpose: This paper argues the rationale for a model of reflective practice in the formation of young agricultural advisors and to use this model to inform a wider discussion on the importance of the different levels of reflection in agricultural extension higher education.

Design/methodology/approach: The paper presents a model of four reflective practice modules conceived as successive building blocks in the professional development of a reflective agricultural advisor and examines the model through the lens of theory and the lens of experience of the first cohort of students to complete the programme.

Findings: Experiential learning with structured critical reflection is shown to support the integration of knowledge gained into new professional identities as agricultural advisors.

Practical Implications: Curricula for higher education in agricultural extension need to be revitalised and refreshed to address the mismatch between the emphasis on the social dimensions of extension in the literature and the general lack of attention to this in the education and formation of agricultural advisors.

Theoretical Implications: The paper presents a model of reflective practice that draws on experiences in other professions that could be applied to early career and continuing professional development for agricultural advisors.

Originality/Value: By presenting a model for reflective practice, the author intends to stimulate a wider discussion on the importance of the different levels of reflection in agricultural extension higher education.     

Opinions of agricultural students and dairy farmers regarding nature and the environment: a Swedish perspective

Abstract

This paper presents results from two investigations concerning attitudes of environmental issues among agricultural students and dairy farmers. The investigation of agricultural students was a comparison with an earlier study among the Swedish general public. A majority of agricultural students compared with ordinary Swedish people do not consider that “human beings and animals have the same value and have the same right to live”.

The study among dairy farmers was carried out to explain differences in mineral balances, especially nitrogen. The dairy farmers were divided in two groups according to the result from mineral budgets. The overall impression was that dairy farmers belonging to the group with a low nitrogen surplus per hectare were more concerned about the negative environmental impact from agriculture; they were capable of decreasing the inflow of nitrogen from purchased mineral fertiliser in spite of the possibility of a lower yield compared with the group with a high nitrogen surplus. They were also more positive towards the whole concept of mineral balances.     

Improving the output of agricultural extension and research through participatory innovation development and extension; experiences from Zimbabwe

Abstract

This paper describes the rationale for a change from conventional extension towards participatory innovation development and extension. The “Conservation Tillage Project” and the “Food Security Project” developed such an approach and have embarked on institutionalisation of this approach into the agricultural extension service in Masvingo Province in Zimbabwe. Dialogue with farmers, farmer experimentation and the strengthening of self-organisational capacities of rural communities are the major elements to improve development and spreading of innovations, thus the efficiency of extension. The new approach requires a role change of agricultural extension workers from teacher to facilitator as well as appropriate methods and tools. Elements of “Training for Transformation” and Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) were tested and developed and were found to be effective tools. The strategy to institutionalise participatory extension is based on joining efforts and networking with other organisations, a campaign to familiarise institutional staff and a training and follow-up programme for staff in the framework of organisational development.

The experiences show that the attitudinal change required to implement participatory approaches is highly depended on personalities. To have an impact on the change of attitudes a continuous mediumterm training process with a close follow-up is required. The paper concludes that institutionalisation of participatory approaches into hierarchically structured organisations is a highly complex intervention. In order to be successful, major changes in planning, implementation and monitoring and evaluation procedures are required. Changes of that nature require a process of at least 5 to 10 years and high commitment on the side of institutional staff on all levels and donors as well.