From Córdoba to Washington: WTO/GATS and Latin American Education

This article examines the educational dimension of the General Agreement on Trade in Services of the World Trade Organisation (WTO/GATS), with a special focus on its potential implications for the Latin American region. This ambitious strategy to transform education into a tradable commodity in a global economy cannot be isolated from other international treaties and from the neoliberal policies that have impacted Latin American societies for the last two decades. In this regard, we argue that the WTO/GATS educational agenda has the potential to further the project of privatisation to a higher level, opening the door for international competition. In a continental political economy characterised by large asymmetries in educational export markets and in interactive technologies, such competition will not take place on an even playing field, as the USA is better positioned than most countries in the region to take advantage of a ‘free educational market’. If the proposed WTO/GATS goes ahead in such a context, Latin American countries can be adversely affected in terms of their sovereignty on cultural policy, the quality and accessibility of their public education systems, the training of scientists and researchers oriented towards national development, and the contribution of their education systems to the common good and to the equalisation of opportunities in largely unequal societies. We recommend that Latin American governments do not commit themselves to the educational agenda of the WTO/GATS before holding a wide process of public participation, information and reflection in national parliaments and in civil society.     

Measuring educational liberalisation. A global analysis of GATS

In this article, we examine the process of trade liberalisation of educational services in the framework of the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) of the World Trade Organisation (WTO). Specifically, we analyse the factors that influence the undertaking of commitments on educational liberalisation by the member countries of the WTO. The text is divided into three parts. In the first, we examine in detail the methodology of GATS negotiation. Second, in order to measure the degree of liberalisation of educational services in the countries we construct an index called EduGATS. Finally, we review and analyse the commitments on liberalisation consolidated by member countries in terms of educational services. The sources of the primary data are the lists of commitments on services of the members of the WTO, interviews with delegations from member countries, documents on the position of various delegations and documents from the WTO Council for Trade in Services.     

The impact of the GATS on transnational tertiary education: Comparing experiences of New Zealand,Australia, Singapore and Malaysia

This paper examines the impact of the World Trade Organization’s (WTO) General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) on transnational higher education in four countries: New Zealand, Australia, Singapore and Malaysia. The GATS is a multilateral agreement through which WTO members commit to voluntary liberalisation of trade in services, including education. Transnational (or offshore) education refers to education that is delivered by an institution based in one country to students located in a different country. Two of the countries considered, New Zealand and Australia, have made commitments under GATS to allow relatively unrestricted cross-border provision of education in their countries, while the other two countries, Singapore and Malaysia, have made no such commitment. There is currently considerable activity in renegotiating countries’ commitments to GATS as part of the Doha round of WTO negotiations, and simultaneously bilateral free trade agreements are being proposed between countries in the region. In this context, this paper examines the practical impact that GATS has had on these two countries that have made commitments regarding education, and the likely impact that similar commitments by Malaysia and Singapore would have on the tertiary education systems in those major importing countries.     

Hegemonic Exceptionalism and Legitimating Bet‐Hedging: paradoxes and lessons from the US and Japanese approaches to education services under the GATS

In this paper we consider the negotiating positions adopted by the US and Japan for the liberalisation of trade in educational services under the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). We argue that the US adopts a position of hegemon and freerider in the development of a liberalisation regime in education. The aggressive character of the US position is profoundly influenced by: (1) a strong federal government level faith in service liberalisation; (2) high levels of domestic privatisation in the fields of higher education, training, testing and evaluation; (3) active lobbying by educational services providers. Nonetheless, the US is cautious about allowing foreign competition into domestic education markets. This stems in part from active resistance of the public education sector; and in part because of the delicate jurisdictional questions it would raise given the constitutional right of states to control educational policy. Ironically, US reticence also seems to be related to the relatively high levels of private educational expenditures in the US. In contrast, the Japanese government's approach is motivated primarily by bet‐hedging and legitimation concerns. Japan is not a net‐exporter of educational services and cannot be said to have comparative advantage in this field. However, three things seem to be influencing what might be seen as Japan's surprising decision to join the group of only four (World Trade Organization)WTO member nations who have submitted negotiating proposals for trade in educational services. First, the Japanese are strongly interested in the expansion of trade in other service areas, and may be willing to negotiate in education in order to further negotiations in these other areas. Secondly, Japan's decade‐long economic crisis has contributed to an important policy shift in the government's plans for higher education. Questions about the relevance and competitiveness of Japanese higher education have recently led the Japanese government to commit itself to this sector's ‘internationalisation’. To this end the government is also considering legislation that allows for the accreditation of 282 K. Mundy & M. Iga foreign higher education within Japan. Nonetheless, the Japanese government's negotiating proposal on trade in educational services is much more tentative than that presented by the European Union (EU) and New Zealand, for example. Japan places unique emphasis on the importance of regulatory control mechanisms for foreign service providers. As in the US, at least some part of the Japanese reticence seems to be driven by relatively high levels of private educational expenditure in the country. This paper is organised as follows. In Sections I‐V we briefly trace the history of the WTO, the GATS, and the inclusion of educational services in the GATS. Here we emphasise the strong role played by the US in the inclusion of services in international trade negotiations, and its part in the collapse of ‘embedded liberalism’ as a foundation for a multilateral trade regime. We also look briefly at the contentious aspects of the current round of negotiations in the education sector and describe their current state of play. In Sections VI and VII, we look more closely at the political economy of the negotiating positions adopted by the US and by Japan. We situate the negotiating approaches of these two countries within a comparative analysis of their relative share of current trade in educational services. In our concluding section, we begin to answer two questions. First, what theoretical framework best explains the content and direction of the American and Japanese negotiating frameworks? Second, what can the negotiating positions of these two important WTO members tell us about the overall direction and likely outcomes of the Doho round of negotiations on educational services?     

On international trade in educational services: an interpretation of the regulations and China’s WTO commitments

The General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) of the World Trade Organization (WTO) covers educational trade services. Hence, all the regulations of the GATS have to be followed in the international trade of educational services. Having acceded to the WTO, China is starting to fulfill the rights and obligations as a member by completely respecting international trade, services and intellectual property laws. At the same time, it is also starting to fulfill some of the commitments it made in the GATS, such as expanding activities on trade in educational services. Comprehending the fundamental regulations and China’s commitments is significant towards promoting China’s international trade in educational services. __________ Translated from Journal of Beijing Normal University (Social Sciences), 2004 (1)     

At the Precipice: The Story of Mathematics Education in the United States

The role of education in fostering economic growth and social development is universally recognized. Although history places the provision of education firmly within national control, countries increasingly search outside national borders for alternative distribution frameworks. Tellingly, the World Trade Organization recently included education as service trade sector in the General Agreement for Trade in Services (GATS) negotiations. Such activity increases debate about control as countries struggle to create policies that balance nationalism with economic responsiveness. This study employed multivariate data to question whether trade openness in 162 countries was associated with openness to trade in education, and whether countries' commitments to lower barriers to education trade paralleled the strength of their commitments to lower barriers to all trade.

Among the findings were the following: (a) On average, countries with education commitments experienced slightly higher levels of general trade openness than those without education commitments; (b) in lower-middle-income countries, education trade openness and general trade openness were positively related; and (c) when controlling for education, population, geography, and income, lower levels of education trade barriers were the single best predictor of countries' having made education commitments under GATS. A model for systemic improvement in education trade policymaking is also presented.     

GATS and the steering capacity of a nation state in higher education: case studies of the Czech Republic and the Netherlands

This paper looks at the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) as an important part of the international trade law system and explores if and how it affects the steering capacity of a nation state regarding higher education. It offers a new conceptual framework to look on the impact of GATS on higher education within its increasingly complex environment by distinguishing between the ‘static’ dimension (GATS’ rules and disciplines) and the ‘dynamic’ dimension (stakeholders’ standpoints, views and actions). Furthermore, by comparing two case studies conducted in the Czech Republic and the Netherlands, it connects the theoretical framework on GATS and the steering capacity of a nation state with specific national conditions and complements case studies that have been so far carried out in other countries. We concluded that neither through the static dimension nor through the dynamic, was the steering capacity in the two cases affected directly: nation states remain the prime actors regarding higher education. Nevertheless, exercising their power over higher education has become more complex and nation states must take more consequences of their internal policy choices into account, which may be difficult to predict.     

专业服务:教育服务贸易永恒的比较优势

教育服务贸易的比较优势可以概括为许多方面,但最根本的就是专业服务。本文分拆了教育中专业服务的基本合义、我国教育专业服务的比较优势、并从制度构建的角度提出几个对策,包括：完善我国教育服务贸易的政策和法律支撑体系,放宽国内民间资本的准入领域,发展具有比较优势的教育专业服务,完善教师教育制度,用税制规范国外举办的教育机构的营利性办学行为等。     

Trends in International Educational Services: Implications for China after Entering WTO

On December 11, 2002, China became a formal member of the World Trade Organization (WTO). Joining WTO was a strategic decision made by the Chinese Central Government and the State Council after serious consideration of the international situation of a polarized world, economic globalization and the rapid development of science and technology. These global challenges have led to a demand for the nation's further economic reform and open policy. The Chinese educational circle has actively adapted to the change by studying the rules of WTO, so as to utilize them flexibly and serve the new situation. This article outlines the existing situation and trends in the trade in educational services, and then focuses on the policies of China with regard to this trade and WTO. Key words: educational services, trade, foreign students, international co-operation, study abroad, World Trade Organization, educational software     

WTO框架下的教育输入与输出和中国政府的教育立法与政策调整

中国加入WTO对教育服务的承诺是部分承诺，有条件、有步骤地开放服务贸易领域和进行管理、审批。WTO框架下，国际教育服务主要通过跨境交付、境外消费、商业存在和自然人流动四种方式提供。OECD和UNESCO将跨境教育区分为人员流动、项目流动和机构流动三种方式。在加入WTO后中国政府根据不同阶段不同类别教育的特点，做出了不同的教育服务贸易准入承诺，教育的输入与输出方面的政策与立法做了调整。政府要高度重视WTO框架下对教育输入、输出机构办学质量的监控，不断改进和完善准入质量标准和办学质量标准。政府要不断改进管理职能。     

教育服务贸易中高等教育境外消费政策的比较研究

随着中国政府承诺开放教育市场,高等教育境外消费便成为社会各界关注的焦点之一.开放教育市场,不仅要了解世界贸易组织的相关规则,而且要借鉴其他世贸组织成员国在教育服务贸易方面的经验,通过对不同国家高等教育境外消费政策的比较研究,为我国高等教育境外消费服务贸易提供有益的启示.     

经济全球化背景下的会计服务贸易自由化

经济全球化带动了会计服务贸易的自由化,在经济全球化的背景下,世界会计服务行业出现新的发展态势.<服务贸易总协定>(GATS)作为国际服务贸易的总纲要,同样影响着会计服务贸易的全球化进程,其中市场准入和国民待遇成为影响会计服务贸易自由化的主要因素.会计服务贸易的自由化推动了会计准则的国际化,而会计准则的国际化又反作用于会计服务贸易的全球化.由于国内会计行业整体水平还比较薄弱,因此,会计服务贸易的自由化在给中国带来机遇的同时也带来了严峻的挑战.     

无边界高等教育及其资格认证

在全球化背景下 ,特别是世贸组织的发展 ,高等教育已越来越被视为一种国际商品和服务贸易中的出口产业。各国积极谋求开拓高等教育的国际市场 ,吸引海外学生 ,在别国开办和接管高校 ,运用信息与传播技术实施远程高等教育 ,从而出现了无边界高等教育。无边界高等教育的发展 ,在较大程度上依赖于教育质量的保障和受教育者的资格认证 ,因而有效发展国际认可的资格认证制度 ,将是无边界高等教育发展的一个重要方面     

GATS协议对我国旅游业国际投资的保护

GATS作为WTO框架下的多边国际条约,对其签约国的国内有关旅游服务贸易的立法具有约束的作用,要求各成员国删去其国内旅游服务贸易立法中对旅游服务贸易的市场准入方面限制的条款,同时在外来旅游服务性投资项目建立起来之后,给予该投资项目公平的、非歧视性的待遇。这对于我国的旅游业对外投资在进入东道国市场的时候以及进入后享受到公正的非歧视性的待遇具有重要的作用。但由于GATS妥协性的特性,它在国民待遇、市场准入和补贴等方面规定模糊,因此在对旅游业国际投资的实际保护上的作用仍有待提高。     

高等教育服务贸易有关问题的国际讨论及其启示

近年来，在世界范围内，教育界和贸易界对WTO的《国际服务贸易总协定》（GATS）的有关问题一直在进行着激烈的争论。在我国学术刊物上也发表了不少讨论文章。将国际国内讨论进行对比，讨论的主题及对问题的认识均存在一定差距。笔者认为，有必要对GATS及其相关问题的国际讨论作更加全面的介绍，以便我国学者对这些问题作更加深入的讨论，为我国政府履行承诺及下一轮谈判提供决策参考，使我国教育工作者和管理者们客观地认识当前高等教育国际化的形势。     

作为国际商品的知识与教育:公共产品的消解

全球化是 2 1世纪高等教育的核心部分之一。它带来了许多机会 ,同时又是一项挑战 ,对发展中国家来说尤其这样。全球化有许多不平等的因素 ,包括 :英语的广泛使用 ,这对那些不以英语作为教学语言的国家不利 ;知识产品如数据库等的所有权 ;发达国家大学在学术交流和其他联系方面处于主导地位。WTO和目前关于服务贸易协定的争论体现了全球化的复杂性。服务贸易协定寻求开放全球的高等教育市场 ,但与此同时 ,这也会影响到许多国家对高等教育决策的控制权     

GATS框架下中国旅游业的发展策略

随着国内工业化和经济全球化的深入发展,中国旅游业在国民经济发展中起着越来越重要的作用。加入WTO必将促进中国旅游服务的发展,而WTO所确立的服务贸易法律体系既为中国旅游业的发展提供了机遇,也形成了挑战。因此,只有了解中国旅游业在国际服务贸易协定（GATS）之下的一般性承诺与中国在减让表中的具体承诺,才能采取有效的实施措施来促进中国旅游业国际竞争力的发展,从而发挥其在第三产业中的龙头作用。     

我国国际服务贸易的立法现状及其思考

目前，我国在国际服务贸易立法与GATS存在着一致之处，但更多的是不相一致，面临入世，促使其与GATS尽快接轨乃势在必然。我国国际服务贸易立法的应对之策应是：积极参与国际服务贸易规则的制订；充分利用GATS规则，制订国际服务贸易保护法律；依据GATS规则，为完善国际服务贸易自身发展而立法。这是我国迎接入世带来的挑战的基本立法思路。     

教育服务贸易自由化与中国教育发展

全球化是一个让所有东西过时的名词,但正如贸易和商务一样,教育正日益跨越国界,融入全球化的浪潮之中。本文正是从对教育自由化的动因入手,对国际教育服务自由化进行探讨,重点结合世界贸易组织服务贸易总协定的有关规定和中国入世后就教育服务市场开放所做的具体承诺讨论中国目前面临的机遇与挑战及应对之策。     

Cultural diversity as resistance to neoliberal globalization: The emergence of a global movement and convention

While there have been numerous discussions of the impact on educational services made by trade liberalization through the World Trade Organization (WTO), this study looks at the emergence of global resistance to the commodification of culture through the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) within the WTO. In line with the Council of Europe Declaration on Cultural Diversity in 2000 and the UNESCO Declaration on Cultural Diversity in 2001, a global movement has been fighting for a legally binding global convention on cultural diversity under the auspices of UNESCO. The author examines how ‘cultural diversity’ is defined by various groups and nations. She also discusses the potential implications of such a global convention on cultural diversity for ‘cognitive justice’, that is, for affirming the validity of diverse knowledge systems over against the dominance of neoliberal ideology. Finally, she argues that the leading definition of cultural diversity, contrary to its stated intention, actually serves to re-assert the cultural hegemony of the North rather than benefit subjugated knowledges of the South.